Blitzkrieg
Blitzkrieg is a war tactic used by the Germans during the early years of the Second World War. The tactic entailed using aggressive and swift attacks on opponents to limit manpower losses. The term originated from Carl Clausewitz’s work on the “concentration principle.” Clausewitz discovered that many army commanders dispersed their armies without any focused attention, causing the forces to be inefficient. Therefore, he proposed that an effective way to attack is to concentrate all military forces against an enemy at every single moment. Clausewitz named this “concentration” as the center of gravity or Schwerpunkt.
The Blitzkrieg attack would start once the enemy’s center of gravity had been identified. The military would then lodge a frontal attack, concurrently dispersing forces on the flanks. This dispersal would then create a double envelopment called a cauldron. The enemy would be forced to surrender or be annihilated once surrounded by the German forces. Germans successfully used the Blitzkrieg strategy to defeat Poland, France, Denmark, Yugoslavia, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, and Greece. Blitzkrieg also helped Germans avoid a long war, which was remarkably economical for military material and human resources. The tactic was also adopted by German allies who achieved considerable success, especially during the Stalingrad Battle. Historians have also noted the blitzkrieg inspired later military operations such as Israel combined air and ground attacks against Syria and Egypt in 1967. Norman Schwarzkopf, a U.S. Army general, used the blitzkrieg tactics to liberate Kuwait from the Iraqi during the Persian Gulf War of 1991.
Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill was Britain’s Prime Minister between 1940 – 1945 and 1951-1955. He was also a member of parliament in the year 1900-1964, representing at least five counties. He was an economic liberal and imperialist; he was also opposed to socialism but supported free markets and individual liberty. Some of his political ideologies have been described as racist in the modern-day context. Churchill’s proponents defend his racial views by arguing that he opposed anti-semitism and would not have encouraged the persecution of minority groups
Before World War II, Churchill acquired the reputation of having an erratic judgment of war. He led a series of battles that led to severe losses and deaths of many soldiers. He successfully led Britain through World War II, shaped the allied war strategy, and alerted the West of the threat posed by the Soviet Union. In the 1930s, Churchill warned Britain to be wary of Adolf Hitler as a threat to international peace. He advocated for Europe’s unity because he believed this was the only way Europe could achieve peace and eliminate war-mongering. His advocacy led to the Council of Europe in 1948, created to prevent the repetition of the atrocities witnessed from the two world wars. Churchill’s ideologies and advocacy also inspired the European Court of Human Rights.
The Holocaust
The Holocaust was a state-sponsored genocide of six million Jews by the Nazi regime. The genocide was racially inspired as the Nazis believed their race was superior to Jews. The German authorities also targeted minority groups, including people with disabilities, black people, homosexuals, Roma, Soviet war prisoners, etc. Adolf Hitler developed the notion that the Jews were an evil race obsessed with world domination. In part due to the large Jewish population, the Nazis considered them a threat. By 1933, the Jewish community had a considerable population in Europe. These perceptions sparked the Nazi anti-Semitism that sparked the Holocaust. The persecution started in 1941 and ended in 1945.
The economic, social, and political impact of the Holocaust still affects regions severely affected by the Holocaust to date. The areas most affected by the Holocaust are still underperforming economically. Acemoglu et al. (2011) show that the average G.D.P. of regions severely affected by the Holocaust reduced by 23% between 1939 and 1959. The authors hypothesized that the G.D.P. decline was caused by the 39% decline of the Jewish population and the elimination of relatively skilled and highly-educated individuals. According to Acemoglu et al. (2011), approximately 15% of the instructors in public schools and other public institutions lost their jobs. The law required all Jewish professionals occupying white-collar jobs to be expelled from their position.
The war also changed the social structures in the war-inflicted regions. Before the Holocaust, the Jewish community constituted the most significant proportion of the middle-class society. Approximately 67% of the Jewish had white-collar jobs, while only 15% of the non-Jews occupied such positions (Acemoglu et al., n.d). Individuals that occupied the white-collar jobs constituted the bulk of the middle-class population. It is no surprise that the size of the middle-class significantly reduced after the Holocaust. Typically, the existence of a strong middle-class population plays a critical role in enhancing the political and economic development of a country. Recent empirical analysis has correlated the Holocaust and long-run political and economic outcomes implications (Acemoglu et al., 2011). The study showed that Russian regions severely affected by the Holocaust still have low populations compared to the other areas (Acemoglu et al., 2011). The locations also have lower wages and per capita incomes compared to their counterparts. Interestingly, these regions still have more robust support for the communist parties even after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Two atomic bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, killing hundreds of thousands of civilians. The United States started developing its nuclear weapon in response to the warnings that the German Nazis were researching nuclear weapons. Although Germany had long been defeated, the pacific war continued to rage. On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb, popularly known as the little boy, was dropped in Hiroshima. Three days later, the second bomb called the “Fat Boy” was dropped in Nagasaki. Japan finally unconditionally surrendered following the second bombing in Nagasaki.
The bombings had significant economic, environmental, and health consequences. Politically, the Japanese emperor conceded to the Potsdam declaration and unconditionally surrendered. Some historians argue that the bombings marked the end of World War II, while others contend that it might have ignited the cold war. The exact number of people that died is unknown, but historians estimate over 200 000 thousand deaths. Infrastructure was destroyed, injuries were incurred, and many survivors were left homeless. Many Japanese died due to the exposure to ionizing radiation and the intense heat of the bombs.
Epidemiological research shows that children exposed in utero to the radiations were born with significant congenital disabilities and growth and developmental problems. The survivors with first-hand exposure to the radiation developed cancers, leukemia, and other chronic condition. The bombs significantly reduced the labor and physical capital, stifling economic growth in those areas. Although the population of these cities was severely affected, Japan managed to return to its pre-bombing growth rate.
Truman Doctrine
President Harry Truman established the Truman Doctrine to protect any democratic nation under authoritarian forces’ internal and external threats. The president urged Congress to support Greeks against the communist party as he believed that the greek communist party was receiving support from the Soviet Union. He worried that if the communist party succeeded in civil war, the Soviet Union would gain traction in the region and influence their domestic policies. President Truman justified the doctrine by arguing that the United State’s national security extended beyond the physical territory; hence, it would no longer tolerate any coerced expansion of the Soviet Union into a free and independent country. He emphasized the consequences of failing to protect Greece and Turkey’s democracy. Consequently, the American Congress appropriated $400 million to support Turkey and Greece’s cause for democracy.
The Truman Doctrine expanded the division between the U.S.S.R and the United States. Truman’s decision to economically help Greece and Turkey intensified the tension between the two factions. The doctrine also defined the country’s formal acceptance to assume the responsibility of containing the communist party. In 1952, Greece and Turkey allied with Americans and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO was formed to protect against the threat posed by the Soviet Union.
The doctrine marked America as the protector against the Soviet aggression, providing the country with activism legitimacy during the Cold War. The United States feared that Europe would turn back and support communism; therefore, it pledged $13 billion in the Marshall plan to help Europe’s economy. Thus, per Truman’s declaration to economically support democratic countries, George Marshall proposed a plan to provide economic aid to Europe. Marshall’s strategy was successful as it helped to rehabilitate Europe’s economy, reducing its risk of turning to the Soviet Union.
Berlin Airlift
The Berlin Airlift occurred between 1948 and 1949 following the Soviet blockade of land routes into Berlin. Although Berlin was located in the Soviet region, it was divided among the French, British, and the United States. However, the Soviets denied the western allies surface access into the area, citing safety concerns. Consequently, air corridors were established, and the United States began airlifting medical supplies, fuel, food, and water to the city. For almost a year, Berlin received supplies through American planes. This crisis was caused by the rising tension between the Soviet Union and western powers on occupation policies.
The Berlin Airlift marked the start of the cold war. Americans feared that withdrawing from the city would allow the Soviet Union to expand into the region. On the other hand, the Soviet Union raised the blockade with the intention of starving West Berlin out. The siege also intensified internal divisions in political regions. An economic gap was created between East Berlin and West Berlin because the latter had better employment and wage offers than the former. The Marshall Aid significantly improved the economic and social outcomes in the West. By 1961, approximately 30,000 East Germans were migrating to the West for better living standards. The government in East German had to establish drastic measures to prevent the mass migration as they relied on them to revitalize the region. It felt threatened and responded to the migration by building the Berlin wall, politically dividing the area.
Korean War
The Korean War started on June 25, 1950, when the North Korean military crossed the boundary that divided them from South Korea. The war stemmed from the conflict between the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea). Advised by the Soviet Union, North Korea invaded South Korea, causing the deaths of approximately 2.5 million people. While the Soviets and Chinese government-supported North Korea, the United States supported South Koreans. The Soviet Union occupied the Korean Peninsula located north of the region, while the U.S. occupied South Korea.
The U.S military was helping South Korea rebuild its army and establish democracy. By the time South Korea was invaded, the U.S army had constituted a significant proportion of South Korea’s army. The communists, on the other hand, established their regime in North Korea. During this time, plans were already underway to reunite the two regions. However, the Soviet Union convinced Kim Il-Sung that the only way to achieve reunification was through invasion or violence. After the war ended in 1953, the states retained their de facto boundaries. China supported the Soviet Union by sending an expeditionary force into Korea, driving the United Nations command out of North Korea, which consolidated the Soviet’s control in North Africa.
Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban missile crisis happened in October 1962 when the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a 13-day military and political standoff over the accession of nuclear missiles from the Soviets. The standoff occurred about 90 miles from the U.S shores. On October 22 of the same year, the then-president of the United States (John. F. Kennedy) publicly declared his decision to enact a military blockade in Cuba.
President John F. Kennedy announced that he was ready to use military force according to the National security treaty. Later on, the president of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev’s, offered to remove the Cuban missiles on condition that the U.S would promise not to invade Cuba. The standoff created tension among citizens as most feared that the countries were on the brink of a nuclear war.
Decolonization
About three dozen countries in Africa and Asia attained independence between 1945 and 1960. Countries applied different tactics to achieve independence, some opting for peaceful protests, while others used violent methods such as riots and active resistance. The British Prime minister, Harold MacMillan, orchestrated decolonization. The World War II, Europe’s economic strength was weakened. Additionally, it faced significant opposition from other superpowers, including the Soviet Union and the United States, which had taken a strong position against colonialism. Britain withdrew from Egypt in 1956, Palestine in 1948, India in 1946, and Africa between the 1950s and 1960s. By 1962, the French had left its colonial territories, while Portugal withdrew in the 1970s.
Existing theories give conflicting accounts of decolonization’s socioeconomic and political consequences, underscoring the importance of statistical evaluation. Some scholars believe that independence improved economic and political development in the regions. Some scholars emphasize the democratization gains that most colonial states inherited from their colonial masters. Many colonial governments, especially Britain and France, encouraged democratic rule and elections before exiting. Britain partly reacted to the local demands raised during Indian polls during the 1920s and 1930s,
While colonialism might have had positive implications, its dominion was not inconsequential. Most countries in the regions were left economically deprived following decades of economic exploitation. Another perspective indicates minimal economic and political differences pre and post-independence. For example, the politics in many African states were not altered immediately after independence. The post-colonial era in Africa was characterized by instability, weak social and political institutions, and domestic rivalry. Following a long period of dictatorial leadership from colonialists, the liberal democratic culture was unfamiliar to the statesman. Historians argue that these conditions significantly influenced the one-party politics and autocratic governments in most African countries in the first decades after decolonization. The colonial rule changed the social and political structures so profoundly that decolonization alone could not erase the hostile, oppressive regime.
1968 in World History
1968 marked one of the most turbulent years in world history. The year was characterized by historical assassinations, rebellion, and historical achievements. On January 5 of 1968, Alexander Dubcek was elected as Czechoslovakia’s first secretary of the communist party. Dubcek marked a brief liberation in the country, popularly known as Prague Spring. Furthermore, the North Vietnamese launched several attacks against South Vietnam, surprising the U.S and South Korean forces; this event marked a turning point for U.S. involvement in the Vietnamese war. The war resulted in 543 deaths of American soldiers, an all-time high in the Vietnamese war.
In March, Eugene McCarthy defeated Lyndon B. Johnson, the incumbent New Hampshire’s democratic candidate. Martin Luther King Jr was assassinated in April 1968, sparking a series of riots in the country. The same month, April 1968, students at Columbia University gathered to protest the Vietnam war. The police department responded to the demonstration by beating and arresting protestors. The students’ demonstration sparked other worldwide student demonstrations, including in Poland, Paris, Italy, Mexico City, West and Germany.
As the mass demonstrations continued, French workers also began to demonstrate in support of the students. The protests and civil unrest halted the French economy, forcing Charles de Gaulle to dissolve the National assembly. In June, Robert J Kennedy was murdered, sparking violent demonstrations as Humphrey, the then Vice president, was elected as the Democratic Party’s head. Richard Nixon, a Republican, was voted in as the 37th president of the United States. The Apollo eight became the first people to orbit the moon, a significant milestone for the U.S race.
Peaceful Revolutions of 1989-1991
The German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.) was created in 1949 in a zone heavily occupied by the Soviets. Life in G.D.R. was typically challenging, characterized by limited resources, freedom, and low life satisfaction. In August 1989, protestors flooded central Leipzig to protest against the incumbent communist regime. Surprisingly, the East German security forces do not respond to the demonstrations. Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies had eased the harsh communist rule, but the procedures or guidelines were not enough to prevent the imminent fall of the Soviet system.
The peaceful demonstrations had two significant political outcomes: they marked the end of communist rule and the cold war. First, the protests in East Germany influenced the Berlin wall to be torn down. When Hungary opened its borders, approximately 15,000 East Germans crossed to the West to seek asylum. The demonstrations and the mass migrations continued daily, delegitimizing the communist rule. The East Germany government finally resigned to appease its people. Eventually, the Soviet Union dissolved its republic, consequently lifting the cold war.
Reference
Acemoglu, D., Hassan, T. A., & Robinson, J. A. (2011). Social structure and development: A legacy of the Holocaust in Russia. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(2), 895–946. Web.