The United States War with Mexico that lasted from 1846-1848 is defined as the first war of aggression pitting two sovereign nations. This war has also been viewed to have been a defining moment between the two nations. The cruelty that America used on Mexico at the time astonished the western countries that had themselves been in war with their neighbors for centuries. Ulysses Grant who later became an American President was actively involved in the war.
In his Personal Memoirs, he condemned the war that caused untaught suffering to many people and led to sour relations between the two countries. According to Grant, the U.S. War on Mexico was one of the most unfair battles where one country had a big advantage over the other. Grant further stated that what the United States was doing was a case of imitating a precedent that had been set by other European monarchies. The U.S-Mexico war could not be avoided since Mexican officials had totally refused to sell any part of their land to America though they had offered to buy it.
In the moments preceding the war, Mexico refused to compromise with U.S. owing to various issues that Mexicans felt were not right in the whole deal. The lack of compromise led to war between the two countries and at the end, Mexico lost most of its land to America. 1
The U.S war on Mexico was truly an intertwined affair. It would really be hard to say anything meaningful on the reasons why Mexico refused to compromise without first looking at the history between the two countries and analyzing events that led to the war.
The enmity between the two countries has been termed by analysts to have been going on for a long time. According to Richard Vogel (2004), the war between the two countries was a culmination of a three-decade crusade of greedy American imperialism among its neighbors in the South and Southwest. According to Vogel, America carried out this war to silence Mexico on the stake it was putting on Texas.
America also intended to seize more land in the southern republic by use of unorthodox means. By closely looking at the events leading to the war, one does not fail to notice that America had been trying to go in to war with Mexico for a long time. In 1836, Andrew Jackson failed in his bid to engineer war between the two countries. The other reason that can be deduced to have been the cause of the war was America’s desire to expand its slavery territory in to Mexico. The South American slave nobility were the key engineers of the invasion. They thus wanted to ensure that they extended their slave territory that would give them more influence.3
James K. Polk as the president of U.S. and a political student of Andrew Jackson tried to bring about the invasion a decade earlier. The commander of the army General Taylor who later became a U.S. president possessed a large slave farm. He was therefore on the forefront in pushing for the invasion. Most of the constituents in the American army were men from the south where slave trade was rampant. To them, going to war was a way of fighting for their rights or fighting for a cause that they believed in. By invading Mexico, these people did not achieve their objective but they ensured that the trade survived in Texas. This went on until the onset of the civil war when slavery was abolished altogether in America.
Because of the war, Mexico lost most of its land to America (Approximately 1,370,154 square kilometers). This land included the upper parts of California and areas that later on became the states of New Mexico. On top of the immediate loss of land, Mexico lost its relevance to the United States and up to date, the condition remains the same. 2 Genesis of the war
The war between the two countries could not have been avoided since officials in the Mexican government had completely denied a United States offer to sell to them some of their land. The United States government finally realized that Mexico was not willing to sell any of its land and therefore they decided to attack the country. However, the United States had long committed itself to go in to war and they only used this as a diversion to go to war.
In 1836, Jackson had identified a portion of land that he intended to hive off from Mexico. Although his bid failed then, President Polk used it to fight Mexico in 1846. The United States was claiming a 90-mile piece of land between river Nueces and Rio Grande in Texas.4
Traditionally, this land was the border of Mexico to the North. The U.S President urged Texas to claim this piece of land. The U.S. administration knew that Mexico would retaliate on the aggression. It was also during this time when a troop was sent by the country to the land in dispute under the authority of General Zachary Taylor.
According to Personal Memoirs by Grant, the U.S. government had been sent to provoke a fight but it was imperative that Mexico began the fight. This came true when U.S. lost 20 members of its army. President Polk immediately got permission from congress to go in to war. 4 (John 2000)
America had purposed to use a strategy that would only end if Mexico totally surrendered. The U.S. Navy blocked all the Mexican ports to ensure that the country did not get any outside help. This was meant to isolate and weaken the Mexican army while the land was being attacked. In the war, America used the policy of divide and rule to conquer the land. In the places that America encountered resistance, they would execute the whole community in a bid to frighten those who had similar intentions of resisting the army. 5
From the onset of the invasion, it was clear that America had an upper hand in the matter. To begin with, the U.S. military had superior arms that they were too eager to use on any target regardless of whether they were in the military or plain civilians. The United States had been fathered in blood and therefore they were more versed in the art of war. Since the establishment of a Military Academy at west Point as early as 1802, the country had since been gearing to go in to war. They also had state of the art artillery that they had not yet gotten an opportunity to put in to use. The war with Mexico was therefore a good opportunity to put their military training in to use. On the other hand, Mexico had inferior arms that could not match those used by the U.S.
However, despite the odds being against them they put up a spirited fight that managed to halt American advancement in the northern side of Mexico. The spirit of the Mexicans was only broken when America took Vera Cruz in to siege. This was the breaking point for the Mexicans.7
When the American forces were prevented from taking over the Northern territory, Polk’s army decided to strike at center of Mexico. Vera Cruz was the most important seaport city for the Mexicans. America used the city to bring in several thousands soldiers who took it under siege for a period of three weeks. Since General Scott did not want to jeopardize his soldiers, he decided to shell down the city using the massive artillery they had amassed.
These shells made the walls of the city to crumple. This killed both the military and civilians inside the city. Though this was a bad sight, more was still on the way. In the following years, the U.S. military bombarded the city with rockets in a bid to set it ablaze but unlucky the rockets did not meet their goal.. Instead, they rebounded through the city leaving behind a trail of destruction in their wake.
Two days later, Mexican officials called for a truce to allow for the evacuation of the women and children but the request was denied. Scott said that the request would only be granted on American terms something that happened two days later. After the fall of Vera Cruz and in stark disobedience of the international community, the American army shifted its focus in to Mexico’s heartland.9
Though the Mexican army tried to stop the advance, they were at a disadvantage compared to the massive American army. Though Mexican guerrillas constantly stopped the Americans on their tracks, they were determined to get to Mexico City. The fortune of the city was determined at the Chapultepec castle that is almost three miles from Mexico City. Upon arriving at Chapulpetec, General Scott used his artillery to bombard the city for a whole day. This was a tactic meant to demoralize the Mexican defenders and put terror in the hearts of those living near the city. Though the battle was so fierce near the city, Mexican soldiers refused to surrender to the enemy. Instead, they chose to die while defending their city.6 (Sheppard Softwares n.d.)
Though the Mexican army was compromised of especially young men, they were a brave lot that could not give up easily. Researches on the U.S. war on Mexico indicate that the Mexican army was greatly outnumbered as compared to the Americans. Therefore, the noblest thing that the Mexicans could have done was to surrender. However, the Mexicans chose to fight to their last breath in defense of their city.
The American army perhaps as a lesson to the remaining section of the army cut the throats of those they came across. Some young cadets chose to jump from their watchtowers rather than to surrender to the American army. Wherever the story of the American invasion on Mexican soil is mentioned, the young cadets who were fondly referred as martyrs of the unholy war have to be mentioned. 6
At the last day of the siege, which is the day that the Mexican government officially fell, orders were issued that thirty odd soldiers be hanged.
The soldiers who had an Irish American descent had deserted the U.S. army to fight on the enemy’s side. For their disobedience, they paid with their own blood. Their bodies were kept in the gallows for a full day in full view of everyone. This was meant to weather any remaining resistance against the Mexican army.8
With the two main cities Vela Cruz and Chapultepec fallen, the American army moved toward the gates of the capital city. Having seen the annihilation that had been meted out on their neighbors, the civilians in Mexico City persuaded their leaders not to retaliate against the invasion. Though the Mexican officials heeded the call, General Scott demanded that the only remedy that could salvage the city was total surrender.
The Mexican officials against their wish heeded the call of the civilians and failed to retaliate. Scott and his army staged a parade to celebrate their victorious entry in to the city. In a final act of defiance, Mexican fighters fired at the American procession headed at the city square. This act was replied with sporadic fire on the houses where the fire had originated from for a period of two days. Finally, the whole resistance had been crushed and Americans had carried the day. In Mexico City alone, more than 3,000 Mexican soldiers had been killed against 130 from the American side.9
Though the war was now officially over, Mexican resistance continued all over the land. The American army had a clean up that went on for several months and led to the death of more Mexican civilians and guerillas. In places like Puebla, Mexican guerrillas took a section of the American army under siege for close to four weeks. Again, the American army had victory thanks to their military power. The Puebla attack was followed by other sporadic acts of violence but these were quickly suppressed. Any act of rebellion against the U.S military were met with ruthlessness from the Americans. From the onset, General Scott had issued specific orders that Mexican officials were to be held responsible for any American killed by the resistance. 5
According to the orders, Mexican officials were to be apprehended and handed over to the American army for any single member of his troops that was killed. If those who were responsible for the particular assault were not apprehended before a given time, the mayor who was nearest to the place the assault took place was supposed to give a fine of close to $300. This was a large amount of money at that particular time. After Mexico had crumpled, General Scott tightened his initial policy against resistance. The new rules stipulated that any guerilla captured was to be shot after a mock trial by a handful of American army officers. These executions are the ingredient that helped to quell the resistance.10
The history of the U.S. invasion on Mexico can never be completed without the mention of the role that was played by the renowned Texas Rangers. This group of dedicated paramilitary squad carried out a killing and obliteration campaign in the complete Mexican territory. This squad left behind a heritage of hate that has survived up to the modern day. A large part of the more than 700 Rangers from Texas was usually unemployed men who had no qualms on killing just to get money. This squad was inducted and led by men from Texas who wanted to exert revenge on Mexico for the wrongs they felt had been carried out on their land.4
The Texas Rangers killed and plundered the Mexican people without any discrimination. This squad was armed with the latest weapons that technology had to offer back then. Their arsenal included guns, pistols and dangerous Bowie daggers. Initially, they had been sent in to Mexico as scouts before the army went in. these Texan Rangers wandered the entire Mexican land robbing and harming innocent civilians. Most of those attacked by the Rangers were unharmed civilians who were going through their own business. Reports from a young army officer who served in the army indicated that the Texan Rangers killed people purely for their own amusement without any provocation. The officer further reported that the officers who had recruited the Rangers did not even have control over them.3
Al though much has been said about the atrocities committed by the Texas Rangers on the Mexican people, their actions can best be summarized by the words of Dr. S. Compton Smith. The vocal critic of the Texas Rangers said that those who had been recruited as the rangers were mostly young men who loved adventure.
According to Dr. Compton, most of those who were killed by the Texas Rangers were mostly innocent villagers who did not even possess weapons. Although General Taylor sought to stop the massacre upon learning of the atrocities committed by the rangers failed in his bid since they chose to disregard his directive. At the end, the brave general could do nothing since the rangers had helped in weakening the people’s resistance.3
By looking at the history of the war, one does not fail to realize that Mexico lost the war owing to the merciless use of more sophisticated arsenal against the military and civilians. At first, the war seemed as an attempt by American commanders to protect their interests in Mexico but their ambition overtook reason and they went on a campaign to annex the land. After the war had ended, both governments signed the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty that was intended to put a stop to the war. By the time the last gun had been fired, Mexico had lost most of its ancestral land. America had held Texas as part of its slave empire with the rest of the Southern part. Other than Texas, America had also seized almost half of Mexico’s ancestral land as bounty for the war. 3
By the end of the war, Mexico had lost the most productive plains of Texas and California where they practiced agriculture. Mexico also lost the Colorado plateau that had vast deposits of minerals. All this were now under the possession of America. In short, America concentrated in taking possession of the most fertile land of the Mexicans. The grabbed land became a great source of wealth for the Americans in later years. By this act of aggression, America denied Mexico a great opportunity to become one of the leading centers of commerce and trade.6
Although Americans had taken almost half of the Mexican territory, reports indicate that most Americans were not merely satisfied by this possession. To begin with, the President Polk was upset by the contents of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
According to Polk, America should have taken almost all the key states of Mexico in to its possession. The American president had his eyes cast on the country’s lowlands, which were a fertile land where slave plantations would flourish. Other than the south that was propagating the expansion of slave plantations, most North Americans felt that America should have gotten a bigger claim. A clique of U.S. lawmakers called for the expansion and colonization of all Mexico.
According to a report adopted by the Whig Party on November 1847, the party agreed to end the war but continue its inhabitation. The report declared that a peace treaty had been adopted in Mexico. It also stated that in order to end blood shed in the country; the party had agreed to end the war but presupposed a conquest of the whole land.
The U.S failed to take responsibility for the destruction of property and everyone was required to rebuild his own home.3
This clearly showed that Mexicans were not exactly free people. Were not for the internal contradictions that were present in the United States, Mexico would have been completely enslaved. Although many slave owners were for the idea of full inhabitation of the land, others felt that the idea would make the country free. On the other hand, another group was worried that the expanded land would be made a slave holdup and therefore rejected the proposal of complete takeover.
There followed a debate in the U.S. Senate on the issue that threatened to separate the house. At the end, the idea of complete inhabitation was rejected. The United States war on Mexico was disastrous even in the absence of the complete takeover. A more than three-decade crusade against Spain and Mexico was culminated in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ensured that slavery would thrive in Texas. It also led to an expansion of Americas land. This fact denied the Mexican people the opportunity to enjoy their inheritance and brought the young nation to its knees. 6
Reasons for Lack of Compromise
As it was observed earlier on, Mexico was not willing to sell their birthright to America for anything that money could offer. Even in the face of a looming war, Mexicans defended their city to the last breath. Many of us would then be led to ask why Mexico was not willing to compromise with America just to keep peace.The answer would be seen by looking at events that led to the war. One thing that was maybe the biggest contributor of the war was America’s occupation of Texas.
Since Texas was a part of Mexico, it saw this as lack of respect and they retaliated by removing their ambassador from Washington. The most likely thing that made Mexico to detest the U.S. was their policy on slavery. Mexico had earlier on abolished slave plantations something that had angered Texans who did not want the trade to end. By the Americans taking over Texas, Mexico knew that it was just a matter of time before slavery was reintroduced in their country. Any person who is keen on the American invasion in Mexico does not fail to see that America was bent on taking over the Mexican land. Mexico had fought hard for their freedom from Spain and they had a duty to defend their young independence.3
After Mexico had gained independence from Spain, international surveyors had set the Texas border near River Neuces. Before Texas broke away from Mexico, this river had been used as the upper part of the Mexican border. Spain had set the Neuces as demarcation in the beginning of1816. America had ratified the same in the end of 1819 after they had bought off Florida and pledged to leave Texas as Mexican territory.
By annexing Texas, Mexico saw this as a sign of greater provocation and they were willing to defend the land with their own blood. The Mexicans saw this as the only possible way that they could use to stop America from advancing in their territory. Though the Americans succeeded in annexing Mexico after the war, the country had defended its birthright like a hero.2
Throughout the second decade of the 19th century, Americans had inhabited the immense area of Texas. Most of them had done this through funding accorded by the Mexicans. However, their numbers soon became a cause of worry for Mexico and they banned all American immigration to their land. By the start of the 1830s, General Antonio Lopez had established an autocratic government in Mexico. Following the establishment of this government, the Texans rebelled after General Antonio abolished slave trade. Texans felt that slavery was their identity and felt threatened by its abolition.
The Southern U.S. that was the greatest owners of slave plantations saw the rebellion of Texas as a great opportunity to annex the land. Texans gladly welcomed this move since they saw it as a good opportunity to break away from Mexico. America’s insistence to buy a part of Mexico land was seen as an attempt to reintroduce slavery in Mexican land and this was something the officials were against. The Mexicans knew the evils of slavery and they did not therefore want to be taken back to the dark days.
They therefore decided to support the cause they believed in even if they had to suffer in the process. In the end, they paid with the loss of many lives and loss of territory for Mexico. This was another reason why they refused to compromise.10
That America had its own selfish reasons for conquering Mexico is best seen by what happened a few years after the war. In the year1852, America disregarded the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and came for more land from the Mexicans. This was after gold had been discovered California. The discoverer set ablaze a gluttonous interest from the Americans on the little part of what remained for the Mexicans on the southern side.
The United States people knew that the sighting of gold in California meant that there were other valuable minerals within the place. The American entrepreneurs and foreseers shifted their attention to the North where copper deposits had been discovered. On top of this, a transcontinental railway that had been proposed to be build from the mines would pass in the Mexican land. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the only barrier for the Americans and they intended to get their way by any means.7
The then U.S. President Franklin Pierce who had replaced Pork chose James Gadsen as the American ambassador to Mexico. President Pierce told Gadsen to make it plain that if the Mexican people did not agree to sell the said land for a sum of $25 million, then the land would be invaded for a second time.
Even before negotiations could be initiated, American soldiers were moved in to the land in question using the same tactics that had been used in the first war. The then Mexican president agreed to sell the land to the Americans for the agreed amount to evade a situation like the one they had encountered earlier on and owing to a bribe that the U.S. government offered him. This fishy deal between Santa Anna and the United States government saw more land hived off from the Mexican people. This act of treason angered them so much that they ousted Santa Anna from the presidency and he had to spend the rest of his life as a refugee.
When the final deal had been signed, America had paid only 50 cents for every acre of land it bought from the Mexicans. In fact, the bribe offered to the Mexican president far outweighed the price of buying the land. This shrewdness by the Americans is a clear indicator why Mexicans were not willing to compromise with America during the events that led to the invasion. If anything, Mexicans were ready to go to war for a second time to defend their land and that’s is why they were enraged by president Santa Anna for being cowed by the American land to sell their birthright.8
In 1836, Santa Anna had defeated American infidels during the famous siege of the Alamo. During that year, General Sam Houston with an army of only one thousand men had succeeded in obliterating an American army that was almost double their number. The battle took less than twenty minutes to end, and there after the Texas got independence from the Mexicans. This defeat of the American army must have made Mexico to underestimate the prowess of America in war.
In America, the Whig and the Democratic Parties were divided on the issue of slavery something that proved to be an advantage for Mexico. Since the two parties were divided on the issue, the Mexicans were not afraid of an invasion. Perhaps this was another reason why they failed to compromise. The Mexicans knew deep down that United States were not genuine in their initial offer and that is a big reason why they refused to compromise. However, President Polk who had big slave plantations himself used other tactics to ensure that the two countries went to war.3
Another reason why Mexicans failed to compromise with the United States was Americas claim to manifest destiny. During this time, many Americans were crossing the border in to Mexican soil as immigrants. These settlers were the main bearers of the manifest destiny theory. The theory claimed that the United States had a duty to ensure that it expanded its borders in every corner of their territory. Mexico understood Americas claim that they intended to buy land from the Mexicans to be a disguise of their real motive. Therefore, the Mexican officials decided that they were not compromising on the matter instead choosing to hold a tough stance.
This soon proved to be disastrous when the war began. At the end of it all, Mexico suffered many casualties and lost a large part of their ancestral land. However, they had done the honorable thing at the time and that was defending their territory.5
The other reason why Mexico failed to compromise and perhaps the one that was the most grave was the state of affairs of the country at the time. Mexico had been torn by civil strife at the time and failed to agree on key issues affecting the nation. The United States relied on this weakness and used divide and rule means to ensure that Mexicans did come to a compromise. If anything, America did not want Mexico to compromise since they wanted to go to war.
During the war, the Mexican presidency was in the hands of different people and it became hard for the government to really sit and talk of anything meaningful. To add salt to injury, some Mexican states failed to join hands with the rest of the country. This left the decision-making to a few states and in the end, nothing concrete could be agreed on. We can therefore confidently say that Mexico failed to compromise since the country itself was divided and they could not arrive at a meaningful decision. America was also trying its best to ensure that the country did not arrive at a decision that would make them compromise on the matter.10
By closely looking at the post war events, one does not fail to see why Mexico was justified in failing to compromise over the land issue. After they were defeated during the battle, there was no chance for the country to settle from the effects of the war. The effects of the war had not only robbed the people of their ancestral land, it also destroyed the country’s infrastructure in a way that would take a long time to rebuild.
In the years that followed, America used the upper hand it had to suppress Mexicans and steal their resources in the northern part of the country. Up to date, the people of Mexico have been repressed in a great way by the Americans. American industries up to date use cheap labor that is readily available from Mexicans.6
Historically, capitalists try as much as they can to suppress the cost of labor and maximize on profits. Since this is not possible in America, employers have perfected the art of obtaining workers from Mexico whom they pay low wages. These workers are usually hired in economic boom periods.
The same are fired at times when the economy is in recession. Since the American main points of production are placed in the land that was annexed from Mexico, there is always a cheap source of labor from desperate Mexicans for these American capitalists. It is so easier to get cheap labor from Mexico when production is at peak and send them home during the off-peak time. Perhaps, the Mexican officials had foreseen this thing and they wanted to protect their country from possible repression by their enemies. This could have been a good reason for failing to compromise with America on the issues that finally led to the war.4
By closely looking at the U.S. invasion in to Mexico, one does not fail to realize that the war was politically engineered. Although Americans claimed that Mexico had killed its soldiers, the truth of the matter is that the United States provoked Mexico in to war. The united states were advocating for issues that the Mexican people did not want to inherit. These issues made the country to refuse Americas offer to sell their land to them. One thing that Mexicans knew was that America wanted to annex their land in order to expand their slave plantation territory. Mexico, which was a strong crusader against slavery did not want this to happen in their land thus the refusal to compromise on the issue.
Mexico must also have foreseen the intention by United States to take possession of their fertile land. Ten years before the war, a former U.S. president had tried to grab the same land but failed in his bid. This must have set warning bells to Mexico and they were therefore not willing to negotiate with anyone on their land. This perceived insubordination was rewarded with immediate war from the Americans. The devastating effects of the war transferred most of the Mexican land to America.
Again, the economic effects of the war are felt up to date. Mexico today is among the countries with the highest number of illegal immigrants entering the U.S. Mexicans also provide the highest number of unskilled labor for American capitalists. These laborers are usually overworked and they are underpaid. It is sad to learn that most of the land where these factories are situated was once land stolen from the Mexicans.
Notes
- Roger A. Lee, “The U.S. – Mexican war-(1846-1848)”, The History Guy Websites, 1998. Web.
- Stephen F. Austin, Lone star legacy: The Texas republic and the war with Mexico, 2010. Web.
- Richard D. Vogel, “Hispanic experience”, Perspective on the frontier. Web.
- John, Pike,” Mexico war”, Global security. Org, 2000. Web.
- Gilbert Michael Joseph, Timothy J. Henderson, 2002, The Mexico reader: history, culture, Politics, Ed, Duke University Press, 697-792.
- Sheppard softwares, “Mexican- American war”, GNU free documentation. N.d. Web.
- John S. D. Eisenhower, 2000, So far from God: the U.S. war with Mexico, 1846-1848, Ed, University of Oklahoma Press, 398-436.
- James M. McCaffrey, 1994, Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848, ed. NYU Press, 258-293.
- Don Nardo, 1999, The Mexican-American War, Ed, Lucent Books, 96-112.
- Cecil Robinson, 1989, The View from Chapultepec: Mexican writers on the Mexican American War, Ed, University of Arizona Press, 200-223.
Bibliography
Austin F.Stephen. Lone star legacy: The Texas republic and the war with Mexico. n.d. Web.
Eisenhower, John. So far from God: the U.S. war with Mexico, 1846-1848.Ed. University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
John Pike, John. Mexico war: Global security. Org, 2000. Web.
Joseph M.Gilbert and Henderson J.Timothy. The Mexico reader: history, culture, politics. Ed. Duke University Press, 2002.
Lee A Roger. The History Guy websites: The U.S. – Mexican war-(1846-1848), The History Guy websites, 1998. Web.
McCaffrey M.James. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848.ed. NYU Press, 1994.
Nardo, Don. The Mexican-American War. Ed. Lucent Books.1999.
Vogel D Richard. Hispanic experience, 2004. Web.
Robinson, Cecil. The View from Chapultepec: Mexican writers on the Mexican-American War.Ed. University of Arizona Press. 1989.
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