Introduction
World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that emerged due to deep-rooted tensions among European powers based on intricate political alliances and imperialistic ambitions. The war was ignited by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in June 1914. There rose a high level of frustration and suspicion of the involvement of Serbia, leading to a declaration of war between the two states. The war expanded beyond the two nations as allies pulled off each country and joined the war, leading to a full-blown exchange of hostilities.
WWI had many profound and far-reaching consequences, greatly impacting societies, economies, and political systems worldwide. Two main consequences were the rise of propaganda as a tool for war and the Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919. Propaganda facilitated the war, and the treaty sought to establish lasting peace and prevent future conflicts.
However, the emergence of WWI reveals how the treaty’s flaws and the use of propaganda sowed the seeds of displeasure and contributed immensely to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of World War II. This essay explores the intricacies of the aftermath of WWI and how its consequences became pivotal causes for the outbreak of another global conflict. Propaganda and the Versailles Peace Conference shaped the course of history by manipulating the outcome of WWI and creating conditions that ultimately led to the eruption of World War II.
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that seeks to win people over to an idea using unconventional ways that, in the end, they utterly succumb to the desired position and cannot easily run away from it. During WWI, nations showed their superiority by developing distinctive weapons, such as tanks, machine guns, and fighter jets. However, the scale of the war was big, and resources were required from all corners, including having the will of the people. Hanna (2022) indicates the need to pass across information propagated using traditional means, such as newspapers, notices, and proclamations.
Still, new approaches were needed, leading to the emergence of posters and film productions that persuaded people more. Posters gained prominence as they stood out as cheap from production, sending, and buying. They proved necessary mechanisms for governments and organizations to produce and disseminate propaganda on a large scale.
The United States was not deeply involved in global issues and depended heavily on immigrants while it suffered internal instability. The administration used posters to promote national unity, such as “Together we win” (Library of Congress n.d.). Some posters were created to appeal to more and more migrants as the country heightened the spread of propaganda more than any other nation. The country succeeded in this space, and as tensions were leading up to WWII, the government established the Office of War Information (O.W.I.) as the primary source of propaganda.
Many citizens still supported the need for the country to isolate itself from global wars as it was still healing from the effects of the Great Depression. A few felt the need to support the impending war following Japan’s attack at Pearl Harbor. O.W.I. was created to boost wartime production at home and suppress enemies’ morale in Asia, Europe, and Africa. The office documented elements of homefront culture and life, including the inclusion of women in the workforce.
Additionally, the U.S. used other forms of propaganda like movies and cartoons. Posters remained the main tool, given the advantages noted during WWI, such as being accessible, cheap, and ever-present to marshal Americans to war. Films, such as Preclude to War, portray Japanese, Germans, and Italians as inhuman killers (Paramount Plus n.d.) Hanna (2022) indicates that the O.W.I. permeated Hollywood and used it to produce patriotic movies, such as Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), Pin-Up Girl (1944), and Anchors Aweigh (1945). Cartoon characters were involved in the act, such as the one showing Donald Duck disabling Hitler with a ripe tomato. Propaganda played a crucial role in maintaining America’s involvement in the war, apart from being a source of entertainment. Its allies were heavily involved in the air and ground battles with the help of propaganda.
Other countries had noted the power of propaganda and were not left behind in deploying the unconventional tool in the war. Adolf Hitler, the dreaded German ruler, was inspired by American propaganda infrastructure and its positive effect on citizens. He instituted his arm of propaganda under the leadership of Goebbels, who was tasked with praising the prowess of the German army.
The message degrades the British and Allied armies by portraying them as brave but misguided or cowards and butchers. The Russian troops were painted as inhuman killers and creatures who invaded without fear of death. In Britain, Winston Churchill exploited the radio broadcast channels by establishing the British Political Warfare Executive (P.W.E.) to circulate propaganda to hurt enemy morale, particularly the Germans. However, the German propaganda started to fade, leading to the death by suicide of the lead propagandist.
Versailles Peace Conference
Following the defeat of the Austria-Hungary wing in WWI, nations desired to establish a peace agreement to deter future confrontation on a global scale. A peace conference was convened in January, and the venue was set at Versailles just outside Paris, and the main agenda was to specify the terms of long-term peace. Yonkman (2021) indicates that the conference brought together different nationalities, but in another show of might, the Allied Powers, comprising France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, dominated the talks. The United States sided with the Allied Powers, competing with four major players who influenced the conference’s outcome and generated a series of treaties and agreements.
The significant treaties targeted the defeated powers, starting with the Treaty of Versailles, which punished Germany for being the main agent in the crisis. The Treaty of Trianon outlined measures leading to the loss of Hungary’s territorial losses and boundaries. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye died with the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and demarcated new boundaries for Austria. The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine implicated Bulgaria and established the country’s territorial concessions and reparations.
Lastly, the Treaty of Sèvres initially sought to restrict the expansion of the Ottoman Empire but was later replaced with the Treaty of Lausanne after Turkey became independent (Mulder 2020). As a result of the concessions, new nations were created, including Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, and the Baltic states. France and Britain also benefited by expanding their territorial boundaries. Another outcome was the creation of the League of Nations, an international body that would promote peace and cooperation among nations. The Mandate System was also created to assign control of former German and Ottoman territories to various Allied powers and facilitate their self-rule.
The U.S. was strongly opposed to some of the agreements, but the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, strongly supported the creation of the League of Nations due to its prospect of averting future wars. Russia, a key player in the war, was excluded from the talks, contributing to further cracks in the Versailles Peace Conference. Yonkman (2021) indicates that Russia chose to withdraw from WWI in 1917 following the accession to power of the Bolshevik Administration.
The new government did not please the Allied Powers due to the decision to renounce the country’s outstanding financial obligations to the Allies and the publication of texts of secret pacts between the Allies about postwar demarcations. In retaliation, the Allied Powers resolved not to acknowledge the new Bolshevik Government and the country was not represented at the Peace Conference. The nations that had been defeated, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey, were also excluded from the deliberations.
France and Britain were principally happy with the Treaty of Versailles, which subjected Germany to strict punitive measures. The country lost a large part of its territory and succeeded other losses, including disarmament, war guilt, and reparations. Germany was required to give up about 10 percent of its prewar territory in Europe and all of its overseas possessions (HathiTrust n.d.). Its military was restricted and cut in size, and the top leaders in Germany, including Kaiser Wilhelm II, were prosecuted. According to HathiTrust (n.d.), Germany was required to pay hefty fines of over $37 billion in cash. The harsh terms did not please the Germans. Despite losing territory, the treaty provided some exploitable avenues, sharing boundaries with smaller eastern and central European states.
Russia ceased to exist as a direct threat to Germany and became enemies of France. Therefore, despite its harsh conditions, the Treaty of Versailles opened up other exploitable opportunities, especially in creating a less stable power of balance in Europe. Yonkman (2021) indicates that the National Socialist (Nazi) Party and other radical right-wing parties in Europe explored avenues to gain support in the 1920s and 1930s. Germany found a new route through which it sought to topple the harsh provisions and reinstate its authority in Europe, which led to WWII.
Conclusion
The role of propaganda and the Versailles Peace Conference cannot be underestimated in shaping history and contributing to the eruption of WWII. Propaganda facilitated the various parties’ deliberate manipulation of information, narratives, and emotions, influencing public opinion to support the war. The Versailles Peace Conference was also manipulated by the big four players, who influenced the outcome of the talks. As a result, the harsh terms imposed on Germany and its allies, combined with the perception of injustice, humiliation, and discontent among the German populace, sowed the seeds of discontent and animosity that paved the way for future conflict.
Understanding this historical context is crucial to grasp the complexity of the events that followed the Versailles Peace Conference and the lessons we can learn from the consequences of unchecked propaganda. The bigger question raised is the ethical responsibility of those in positions of power and the media to ensure the dissemination of truthful information and unbiased narratives. Further research on the long-term impacts of propaganda and negotiations in shaping international relations is essential to ensure a deeper understanding of the implications for future conflicts.
References
Hanna, Emma. 2022. “Censorship and Propaganda in World War I: A Comprehensive History, by Eberhard Demm Propaganda and Conflict: War, Media and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century, Ed. Mark Connelly.” The English Historical Review 137 (586): 949–50. Web.
HathiTrust. n.d. “Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949. Compiled under the Direction of Charles I. Bevans. V.2.” Web.
Library of Congress. n.d. “Together We Win / James Montgomery Flagg.” Web.
Mulder, Nicholas. 2020. “‘A Retrograde Tendency’: The Expropriation of German Property in the Versailles Treaty.” Journal of the History of International 22, 507–535. Web.
Paramount Plus. n.d. “Preclude to War” Video, 51:57. Web.
Yonkman, Michaela. 2021. “The Treaty of Versailles and the Rise of Nazism in Germany.” Web.