Introduction
Indians is the name of the indigenous population of America (with the exception of the Eskimos and Aleuts). The name arose from the erroneous submission of the first European navigators, who considered that they discovered transatlantic land of India.
Scientists have begun to interest the Indians, as soon as they came in contact with the Europeans. Around the middle of the XIX-th century there emerging new scientific discipline – American study – a science about history, as well as on the material and spiritual culture of the Indians.
Northwest Indians
In northern Canada, a very vast area is occupied by American Indian tribes, belonging to the two great linguistic families – Algonquian and Athabascan tribes wandered primarily in the western half of this vast subarctic zone between the Yukon and Mackenzie rivers; Algonquian tribes who came here before, inhabited the eastern half of this area of land lying to the east and south-east of the Hudson Bay.
Both tribes were engaged in hunting. Prior to the arrival of Europeans in general, they were not familiar with farming. They lived in tents, usually made of wood bark. At one place, they tend to remain short. In the canoe from the bark, they floated on the great rivers and lakes of Canada. In winter, they moved on sleds (which are called toboggan), or skiing. They hunted using a bow and arrows. The pride of the northern Indians had their skilful traps. In addition to hunting for caribou, and fur-bearing animals, they fished in the countless rivers and lakes in their cold country. Despite the adverse natural conditions, some North American tribes, and especially the tribes inhabiting the banks of the American Great Lakes were quite numerous.
On the opposite Pacific coast of North America, north-west of the today United States, in the Canadian province of British Columbia and south-western Alaska lived still lives three main Indian group in North America, which simply is called the north-western Indians. They inhabited different special beauty of the northern Pacific coast of Alaska, Canada and the United States, its innumerable islands and islets, the coast of Fjords and marine straits (Young Man, 1998).
Against the backdrop of the magnificent natural scenery live more than fifty different indigenous tribes. In the north – south-western Alaska – mainly Indians from the tribe Tlingits, British Columbia – Bella Kula, cymciyan and especially – the best in America woodcarvers – Haida Indians inhabiting the Queen Charlotte Islands. Then it is possible to meet here the whale hunters and to the south, bordering the American state of Washington and Oregon, endowed with outstanding business skills Chinook tribe that first started the exchange of goods with white, often quite long, and come here in their big ships.
Fifty north-western tribes are not related to each language community. These tribes belong to several different language groups. For example, the Haida Indians and Tlingits relate to Athabascan linguistic family. Common to all these tribes is the main source of livelihood – fishing, especially fishing on the high seas. Of all the Indians three Americas – North, Central and South – north-western Indians connected with the sea is most closely associated. They caught cod, flounder, and above all valued their fish – salmon. Caught it as a network, as well as fish-trap. In addition, the north-western Indians hunted sea otters, seals and even whales, leaving them in the big boats. The lack of plant food, they applied collecting seaweed, berries, roots. Agriculture, except for the cultivation of tobacco was unknown to them. In addition to the sea and rivers, these Indians had one more richness – the forest. These Indians were able to perfectly treat the tree. They not only built wooden homes and boats, and carved wooden ceremonial masks and other ritual objects, including totem poles whose home is here. For many hundreds of pillars decorated with carvings, which the north-western Indians dug into the ground in front of the houses, they portrayed their “totem ancestors” – ravens, eagles, whales, and the dead chiefs.
The Indians of north-west are famous for the fabrics. Raw material for them served dog hair (in the south) or the wool of mountain goats (in the north).
Totem capes and poles of north-west Indians have made an eternal monument not only to their original art, but also to the social order. It is worth recalling that the north-western Indians were richer than the vast majority of other Indian groups in North America. But wealth is no longer belonged to all. For the first time in North America is a private owner whose property is inherited only his own offspring, not the tribe as a whole. It gradually formed ancestral know – the chiefs and shamans.
Wealth leads to the exchange. It is widely developed by the north-western Indians. Even “money” was invented (a plate of pure copper becomes means of payment). Finally, another characteristic of the genera already decaying society was the existence of primitive slavery. For the purchase of slaves there were wars, and very bloody, though the main goal was to capture the enemy and turned into a slave. The main weapon was a bow, arrows and a wooden spear with a copper cap. Head covered wooden helmet. Sometimes the wooden armor protected and other parts of the body (Young Man, 1998).
Californian Indians
In the south, it is possible to find different from the north-western Indian independent group. Californian Indians live in the North American state of Oregon too, and even in the north-west Mexico. California Indians still belong to the least developed part of the North American native population.
In California, more than five dozen different tribes live belonging to many language families. With the exception of a few most of southern tribes, none of the groups of California Indians did not know about farming. Most of them were collectors. During a long and hot Californian summer, they gather chestnuts, nuts, roots, various fruits of the forest, wild oats. Hunting for these Indians had a much lower value. On the coast, ocean California Indians collected clams, of course, and caught fish. However, the staple food of California’s tribes served ordinary acorn.
In pre-Columbian era California Indians lived mainly in the dugouts. Also their clothes were very simple. Before contact with the first white men of many tribes went here quite naked, others wore short loincloths of deer skin. The same bandage are met and women. Food boiled these Indians also extremely easy. Porridge and soups are warm in watertight baskets, descending in the hot stones. Indians – the best in all of America basket-makers, a product of the Indian tribe’s help are particularly valuable souvenirs. Significant flourish to this pottery. California Indians treated with a stone, plant fiber, bird feathers, and especially sea shells, which were in California tender.
California Indians are among the Indians of North America that are most affected by the penetration of the white man. Because they lived on the coast or near it, the Europeans learned from other tribes much earlier American West. Formally, California during the colonial era belonged to Spain, but the primary role played by missionaries, first Jesuits, Franciscans and then. The latter is based in California, a number of permanent missions, under which tens of thousands of Indians were living as slaves and work on plantations (Young Man, 1998).
South-western Indians
California borders on state of Arizona, and Arizona – New Mexico. Both of the states are inhabited by the so-called south-western Indians. This area is geographically united live two culturally substantially different Indian groups. The first is primarily Navajo tribe – now the largest, the one hundred thousandth the Indian nation of the United States, living more or less isolated in the largest of today’s Indian reservations. Their neighbors – Apache are Navajo relatives. Already in the XII-th century Athabascan tribes lived in north-western part of the current Canada. Under the pressure of all the new waves of immigrants, they were retreating and were marginalized by several thousand kilometers to the south.
East American Indians
In the time of arrival of the first Europeans, they were, as well as in Canada, mainly the various tribes Algonquian linguistic groups Penobscot, Illinois, Miami, pick-ups other than at the time of the uprising Thecusa, and finally Mohicans.
Algonquian tribes have always played a prominent role in the history of the north-eastern part of the North American continent. Even still Algonquian names of tribes, dozens of cities and even states of the USA have Algonquian names, starting from Manhattan in New York and to the spas – Miami, Florida. From the Algonquian Language the name of Chicago, Mississippi, Missouri, etc is taken.
From Algonquian American tribes east living south of Iroquois, Delaware deserve special attention. Algonquian Delaware were also among the first North American Indian tribes, who, even before the arrival of whites have created their own writing. The letter that was pictorial (Young Man, 1998).
Along with Delaware vital role in post -Columbian history of Algonquian tribes of the eastern part of North America, playing members of the so-called Confederation Pawhathan uniting in the XVI and XVII centuries the Algonquian tribes in today Virginia.
In the struggle against the colonialists distinguished another Algonquian tribe inhabiting that part of the current United States – Shawnee. From the tribe Shawnee went out and celebrated the leader Thecusa probably the most prominent hero of the liberation struggle of North American Indians.
In the south-east, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in the depths of the continent, mostly in the lower reaches of the Mississippi River, it is possible to find a significant group of Indian tribes, which are sometimes termed as South-East Indians.
These tribes, mostly belonging to Muskogee language group (tribal Creek, Choctaw, and others), met for the first time the French and British, who attended the American southeast. Attention of the first Europeans was attracted not by accident.
Food south-eastern Indians brought from fields, where they grew corn beans, pumpkin, and tobacco. They collected mushrooms and chestnuts, a snail and bird eggs. They lived in large, well-built villages, surrounded by fence. At the heart of the “city” (consisting of several dozen of so-called “long houses”) was the area where the “town hall” and three “administrative building”. This central area, “a sort of Indian “Agora”, played a significant role in the life of “city” of southeastern Indians.
In addition to farming tribes of Muskogee linguistic groups, the first white, appeared in the southeast have found other, differ linguistically tribes, for example Chitimacha in contemporary Louisiana and others can be assumed as the Indians of these tribes, the descendants of the indigenous Indian population of the south – east, which was defeated by Muskogee newcomers.
Next, the largest south-east tribe survived so unfavorable to the Indians the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Neither Europeans nor white Americans have managed to destroy it completely. Originally inhabited this teal Virginia, both of Carolina, Georgia, eastern Tennessee and northern Alabama, and belonged to Iroquois linguistic group.
Iroquois group
Iroquois is one of the most important groups of Indian tribes living in eastern North America, but as the Indian team, on the example of a prominent ethnographer, researcher of the largest public building Indians Lewis Henry Morgan showed the history of public relations in primitive society. That is why Iroquois are an example of social organization of North American Indians.
In pre-Columbian era Iroquois lived in a number of current U.S. states – Pennsylvania, Ohio and New York State, around the Great Lakes – Ontario and Erie – and on the banks of the River St. Lawrence. They were sedentary farmers, growing corn, tobacco, beans, pumpkin, sunflower, also engaged in fishing and hunting. Iroquois hunted deer, elk, otters and beavers. From animal skins, they sewed the clothes by themselves. They were familiar with the processing of copper, which was the manufacture of knives. Potter’s wheel was unknown to them, but Iroquois pottery art can be described as developed. Iroquois lived in villages surrounded by garden. Village was a few dozen so-called “long houses”. The household was the basic unit of social organization of Iroquois.
The highest form of social organization was the Union (League) of Iroquois – Iroquois confederation of five tribes: Onondaga, Oneida and Seneca. Each tribe within the confederation was independent. Confederation League led the council from 50 sachem were the representatives of a sort, all the tribes League. There is no supreme, and a hereditary ruler so it did not exist, but there were two equal army. In the Council of the League of all the important questions are addressed on the basis of unanimity (Young Man, 1998).
Each clan has their own name from totem animal (eg, tribe Tuscarora there were eight genera: Gray Wolf, Bear, Big turtle, beaver, Yellow Wolf, Eel, Little Turtle). The eight genera are connected to two phratrie, formed a tribe. And such a scheme of social organization was typical for almost all the Indians of America.
The iroquoises occupied the territory from New York up to northern Pennsylvania, and separate settlements were further to the north, the south and the West, to Great Lakes. They represented an extensive conglomerate of the tribes connected by the general origin.
The iroquoises were strong and numerous people and consequently many from Europeans searched for friendship with them. In 1608 de Shamplen has based one of the first euro-Indian coalitions between the Frenchmen and Hurons. In the end of the same year Shamplen helped in the war with iroquoises to Algonquins, Grisons. For this he has taken from them the promise to help him in studying continent and to protect colonists and dealers who would come after him. Any time the Frenchmen observed the contract with Grisons; therefore they became enemies to the iroquoises, and iroquoises have found allies on behalf of Englishmen (Parker, 1967).
When in 1664 British have beaten off at Dutchs of Albany, they have realized the benefit of the union with iroquoises. The problem of the establishing the friendly relationship with the League was trusted to the colonel G. Cartright. In November, 1687 the protection of a crown has extended already on all Union of five peoples. This contract allowed Englishmen to develop the New England. The Frenchmen stirred to both allies: to British – to keep the colonies, and iroquoises – to distribute the authority above all tribes of the region. The iroquoises were in a condition of war with the Frenchmen since 1608.
Struggle between the Frenchmen and iroquoises has reached the maximum heat in 1689, during the War of King Wilhelm; then Indians did not give the enemy to respite. For the Englishmen, naturally, it played on a hand, they however were pleased not for long: to 1690 the Indians have started to get tired of war. The most far-sighted leaders have understood, that Englishmen and the Frenchmen have remained unique who could compete with them in force. For this reason they have decided to give the whites an opportunity to kill each other. With time Englishmen became more powerful; the iroquoises kept with them the warm relationship (Kelsay, 1984).
A real test of this union on durability became the Seven-year war (French-American Indian) which has burst in 1754 the Frenchmen originally were not only are strong, but also successful, striking exact blows in the weak spots of the enemy. Englishmen have made weight of strategic miscalculations, and in the beginning of 1755 in general seemed, that all for them is already lost. Then general E.Breddoc has suffered a loud defeat, and it became indirect acknowledgement of the superiority of American Indian style of war against British “line”. The tactics of ambushes was magnificent in a wood where habitual to Europeans – a line and columns – could not maneuver fighting orders, and even simply be constructed properly. For Indians the similar methods of guerrilla war were the usual phenomenon. Englishmen not at once have acquired this lesson, but eventually have got used and even have created for conducting “the forest war” the groups of easy infantry (Goldstein, 1969).
The majority of American Indian tribes have acted on the party of France, Englishmen were able to manage their arrangement due to the efforts of the personal friend of the iroquoises – colonel W.Johnson. After the defeat of Breddoc Johnson has headed a small group of iroquoisean soldiers and went together with two thousand civil guardsmen to the Lake George. Among iroquoises there were Hendrick, and Joseph Brant. The fighting which took place on the lake George is very difficult to estimate; Englishmen have reached there the little, however have noted it as a great victory. Johnson has received a title of baronet and a post of the super quartermaster in American Indian affairs in the northern colonies (Brandon, 1987).
Mythology of Indians of North America exists in a tribal structure and its expansion in the education union of tribes, military democracy, in rare cases – in the presence of slavery (the tribes of the north-west coast). It reflects the complex migration process, the sharp contrasts of natural environments, the processes of interaction of nomadic and sedentary, agricultural and hunting tribes, the most important among which are the tribes of Iroquois language family, Algonquian, Muskogee Group, language family Sioux and other prairie tribes, the tribes of Athabascan language family etc.
Mythology of Indians of North America weakly expressed personification of supernatural beings, there is no clear understanding of the hierarchy of gods and spirits. There is a widespread understanding of the four sides of the world, four elements (earth, fire, wind, water), labeled with colors and different objects and phenomena of nature. The combination of the four sides of light is a symbol of completeness and unity of the world; it is closely linked with the idea of cycling of the entire surrounding.
All events are given an invisible magic force, which serves to document not only the spirit or deity, but the world as a whole, as well as any supernatural power. Many tribes allocated to the functions of the supreme deity and creator of the world demiurge anthropomorphic, zoomorphic kind, or faceless.
Mythology of Indians of North America
Mythology of Indians of North America is characterized by the myths about the origin and migration of tribes and the acquisition of miraculous relics and talismans. Algonquians’ migration myth narrates the history of wandering tribe, with its legendary native land lying in the northwest of United States, in the south-east of the continent. In the mythology of Kiowa Indians says that the tribe has soared in this world through the hollow trunk of a tree, and wander from the upper river Yellouston in the south of the steppe zone, in the way of acquiring a wonderful fetish – doll Tai less. The ancestors of Osage Indians, with their mythology, descended to earth from the stars and came to the Mississippi River. A tribal north-west spread myths about the origin and history of noble birth and their leaders, which includes the motivation to migration from overseas, the wars with other tribes of a great acquisition of totem coats of arms (the latter is widely portrayed in the totem pillars, walls, tomb monuments, boats, etc.).
In the myths of the pastoralist tribes (Iroquois, Pueblo, Algonquian) a significant place of deities is occupied by Impersonation of useful plants (“Three Sisters” – maize, beans and pumpkin – Iroquois), as well as many anthropomorphic or faceless invisible spirits as different elements, as well as individual items. For Algonquian characterized by numerous good and evil spirits of nature (lures). Evil draws are like horned water snake, but they can change their appearance. Highlights include Navajo deities as a “senior gods”, terrifying but look beautiful at the same time. “Younger Gods” – it is the spirits of local shrines, canyons, mountains, and individual animals. In myths, Dakota Sioux there are four categories of spirits, embodying the four elements: water, land, wind and fire – each of which has a complex color and spatial associative bond. An important role in myths is occupied by bear (character creator) – almost all the mythology, the snake (a symbol of the earth) and an eagle (symbol of the sun), a tribal bison prairie, dogs, foxes, etc. from the steppes of Indians are considered the founders of military alliances.
European conquest and the resulting decline of Aboriginal culture led to the rise in the number of Indians messianic teachings, prophecies, in which the traditional mythological representations trick connected with some dogma of Christianity. Some of them (for example, “dancing spirits”, “the religion of Dreams”) were short, others are gradually acquired the status of species and distinct religions (pietism – many U.S. tribes, religion wonderful lake – at Iroquois).
Mythological representations of Indians in North America were broadly reflected in the traditional forms of art (folklore, ritual paintings and sculpture, pictography) and the new – contemporary fine art, applied art and literature. Thus, ceramics with complex patterns, reproducing the symbols of fertility (from Pueblo), basketry with mythological pattern (from the Indians of California), weaving blankets (in Navajo). Traditional sculpture of in the XX century becomes the subject of fishing at the Pueblo, and the art of woodcarving (totem poles, bearing houses, masks, etc.) have been successfully revived.
In the traditional form of symbolic paintings related to the ritual, was developed at the Pueblo (the frescoes of the Hopi shrines) and Navajo (multicolored “sand drawings”, followed different practices). Prairie tribes had developed symbolic individual emblems, mascots on the boards, geometric images on buffalo hides, as well as a pictorial calendar chronicles, fertile history of the people. On this basis in the XX century Indians have a tendency to the revival and renewal of traditional forms of paintings, formed a native school of painting at the Pueblo, Navajo, the tribal prairies and north-west.
Indian folklore is quite varied. It includes various mythological traditions, song cycles, elocution. Often, mythological motifs in the form of songs, stories, rhetoric acquired artistic unity in the structure dramatize ceremonies (eg, “Night song” from the Navajo, “mourning rite” from Iroquois, etc.). The trend towards large epic tales recorded in Pueblo tribes, Navajo, Delaware (pictorial chronicle “shafts Olum”), Iroquois. These works are important sources for the study of mythology Indians of North America. Native speaking school has proved itself in the development of the country by Europeans. It reflected in the transformed form of mythology. Modern Indian Literature of the United States develops from the basic concepts and images of popular culture. In the literature, rethought the magic numbers, colors, the notion of a great mystery included mythological characters, motifs and songs. Writers of the United States occasionally treated to the world of mythological images (a poetic treatment of myths in the works Longfello, John F. Cooper novels). Mythologization gives the unique identity of modern Indian literature (N. Scott Momodou, H. Storm) and poetry (J. Walsh, D. Niatum).
Conclusion
Indians are the only native inhabitants of the entire western half of our planet. When in 1492 in the New World the first Europeans appeared this huge continent was not uninhabited.
In Central America and in the Andes at the time of European colonization there was a highly developed artistic culture, the destruction of invaders (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Aztecs, Incas, Maya).
The Art of the numerous tribes that were at the stage of primitive communal system, has been closely linked to the life and material production, it reflected the observations of hunters, fishermen and farmers, embodied mythological representations and the richness of ornamental fantasies.
Varied types of Indian homes: awnings, screens, dome huts, conical tents (typical Indian Prairie Canada and United States) from the poles, covered with twigs, leaves, mats, hides, etc., clay or stone huts in the mountain regions of South America, community-based housing – wooden houses in the north-western North America; covered bark frame “long home” in the Great Lakes region, the stone home-village (Pueblo) in south-western North America. Woodcarvings, especially rich in the north-west coast of North America (polychromatic totem and grave poles with interplay of real and fantastical images), meets a number of South American tribes.
The study of Indian life and culture helps us to look for new ways to present and future of America. Because it is a very distant past the Indians met with the most remarkable rainbow and the future of the continent.
References
- Brandon William. Indians. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1987.
- Goldstein Robert A., French-Iroquois Diplomatic and Military Relations 1609-1701. Paris: Mouton, 1969.
- Krickeberg Walter Et Al. Pre-Columbian Religions. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York, 1969
- Kelsay Isabel Thompson, Joseph Brant 1743-1807: Man of Two Worlds. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984.
- Parker Arthur C., The History of the Seneca Indians. New York: Ira J. Friedman, 1967.
- Trelease Allen W., Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century. New York: Cornell University Press, 1960.
- Young Man Alfred. North American Indian Art: It’s a Question of Integrity. Kamloops Art Gallery, 1998