Introduction
For the condition to be profoundly explored, Parkinson’s disease was chosen. This illness is characterized by its wide presence in many countries worldwide. Significantly, the issue correlates with the aging population, which has more adverse effects. According to Bloem et al. (2021), “Parkinson’s disease represents a fast-growing neurodegenerative condition” (p. 1). The main feature of this condition is also the fact that it impacts the person’s central nervous system (Lindop & Skelly, 2021). Consequently, Parkinson’s disease should be studied because of its relevance and potential danger.
Onset and Course of Parkinson’s Disease
One of the most crucial characteristics of Parkinson’s disease that needs to be determined is its onset and course. First, one should understand that Parkinson’s disease will likely appear in older patients. Humans have a greater chance of obtaining this condition after 60 (Lindop & Skelly, 2021). Among the possible onsets of Parkinson’s disease are genetics, environmental factors, and a person’s age (Chia et al., 2020). The literature review will cover other aspects of this disease, including its onsets and courses and the primary triggers.
Prevalence of Parkinson’s Disease
Due to the fact of the direct dependence of Parkinson’s disease and the age of the person, it is vital to consider the demographical situation in the researched country. Given that the world’s population tends to have a more significant number of older people (Chia et al., 2020), it is vital to realize that the prevalence of Parkinson’s disease will grow. While considering the particular regions, one should stress that the tendency of Parkinson’s disease prevalence is shown in developed countries (Lindop & Skelly, 2021). In this regard, one should highlight that the prevalence of this disease is closely connected to aging factors.
Operationalization of the Condition
Many types of research were conducted to study various aspects of Parkinson’s disease profoundly. As a result, some of them have stated the main phases of this illness. One of the most common systems is the Hoehn and Yahr Scale, which lists the five main phases of Parkinson’s disease (Perju‑Dumbrava, 2021). For example, the first two stages are characterized by the patient’s ability to perform daily living activities, but the progression of the disease grows (Perju‑Dumbrava, 2021). For each step, this scale highlights specific symptoms. Moreover, in the fourth and fifth stages, there are such symptoms as limited mobility without assistance and the risk of falling (Perju‑Dumbrava, 2021). Therefore, while considering Parkinson’s disease, one can use this classification as the basis for understanding its peculiarities.
Literature Review
This literature review concerning Parkinson’s disease will cover causes, treatment aspects, outcomes, and aspects of rehabilitation. Particular attention will be paid to the connection of this illness to the patient’s state. Different symptoms and treatment methods will be explored. Such aspects as epidemiology, neuropathology, and neuropsychological and psychological deficits will be discussed. In conclusion, vital findings will be highlighted, and the need for further research will be stated.
Epidemiology of the Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease can be assessed as one of the most widespread illnesses in older people. The situation in different countries depends mainly on demographic statistics and the aging population. One should state that this disease will likely occur in older patients (Anderson, 2019). Therefore, in countries where the demographic situation indicates that the number of older people is growing exponentially, the problem of Parkinson’s disease will be more actual. Remarkably, developed countries that provide qualitative healthcare and services for the aging population must combat this illness more promptly.
While exploring the epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease, it is vital to pay attention to particular statistical data concerning people’s age and its correlation with the chance of the disease’s appearance. For example, research showed that developed countries indicate 1% of the population over 60 years of Parkinson’s disease (Segura-Aguilar, 2021). However, as Segura-Aguilar (2021) states, “prevalence increases with age to 4% for those over 80 years of age” (p. 1). This data demonstrates the importance of age as the main factor causing Parkinson’s illness.
In addition, considering the spreading of Parkinson’s disease, it is crucial to underline that Alzheimer’s illness is the second-most prevalent neurodegenerative disease worldwide (Segura-Aguilar, 2021). However, particular studies show that, for example, sex differences’ influence on the causes of Parkinson’s disease is controversial and should be studied more profoundly.
Description of Neuropathology
Considering neuropathology regarding Parkinson’s disease, one should highlight that it harms the human body’s psychological and neurological systems. However, primary attention should be paid to discovering neuro-aspects of this illness because it causes significant damage to the entire human body. Among the most adverse neuropathological issues of Parkinson’s disease, it is vital to highlight dysautonomia.
Notably, it is a significant autonomic nervous system dysfunction (Martin & Preedy, 2020). As a result, the entire organism experiences severe changes in maintaining the qualitative functioning of various organs, which is influenced by changes in the neuron system (Martin & Preedy, 2020). Consequently, patients with Parkinson’s disease can experience such neuropathology as erectile disturbances, orthostatic hypotension, urinary incontinence, and others (Martin & Preedy, 2020). Studying these issues and treating them appropriately is crucial due to their significant adverse impact on the person’s organism.
In addition, to determine the neuropathology of Parkinson’s disease, it is crucial to consider Lewy bodies. These aggregations of different proteins are essential in the neuron system’s functioning because of their location inside the neurons (Martin & Preedy, 2020). Many factors, including the specific changes in these Lewy bodies, influence the causes of Parkinson’s disease.
For example, according to Martin and Preedy (2020), “they represent one of the main pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative disorders known as synucleinopathies” (p. 3). Notably, besides Parkinson’s disease, this issue results in many adverse outcomes, such as multisystem atrophy (Martin & Preedy, 2020). Therefore, while exploring Parkinson’s disease, it is necessary to understand the nature of its neuropathology to have the opportunity to understand the possible causes and outcomes of this illness.
Description of Common Neuropsychological/Psychological Deficits
Adverse Effect on the Person’s Memory and Psychosis
To understand the causes and the nature of Parkinson’s disease, one should consider specific deficits in which this illness results. Among them, it is essential to highlight neuropsychological and psychological issues. For example, as a significant neuropsychological aspect, one can name an adverse effect on the person’s memory (Lewis & Spillane, 2018).
Notably, as was said previously, the causes of Parkinson’s disease are closely related to the neurons and neuron systems of the human organism. Therefore, it hurts such things as a person’s memory. For example, a patient with Parkinson’s disease can experience such pathologies as dementia (Martin & Preedy, 2020).
Consequently, it negatively impacts the patient’s ability to remember things and to orient in thoughts (Lewis & Spillane, 2018). In addition, this illness can directly influence the person’s psychological state. For example, as the main issue, one can state psychosis (Kumar & Arjunan, 2021). Many factors, such as high aggression or sleep disturbances, characterize this state.
Concentration Problems and Motor Symptoms
Another deficit that results from Parkinson’s disease is problems with concentration. The patient with Parkinson’s disease, in terms of psychological problems, can experience severe issues with their attention and the ability to focus on particular things. It also depends on the neurological organism’s state, and different neurons can negatively impact the person’s state (Martin & Preedy, 2020). In addition, the concentration problem correlates with other specific issues, such as different motor symptoms.
To assess Parkinson’s disease’s influence on a person’s motor skills, healthcare professionals use the Motor Examination of the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) (Martin & Preedy, 2020). Its scores show the damage that Parkinson’s disease causes to a person’s motor skills. It is an essential instrument to understand which particular aspects of motoric and, partially, concentration problems can occur because of Parkinson’s illness and, therefore, to construct the treatment effectively.
Control of the Patient’s Impulses
The significant factor caused by Parkinson’s disease, which relates to neuropsychological and psychological deficits, is the inability to control impulses. In this case, one should stress how this illness negatively impacts a person’s life. Due to the damage and changes in the neuron system, the person cannot act rationally, and their self-consciousness is reduced significantly. In other words, patient with Parkinson’s disease tends to act without pre-thinking processes and cannot evaluate the outcomes of their actions (Narayanan & Albin, 2022). This factor stresses additionally the importance of constant control and care for the patient with Parkinson’s disease.
Management, Intervention, and Rehabilitation of Parkinson’s Disease
Management and Intervention
Management of Parkinson’s disease closely correlates with the type of symptoms and their relation to psychological or neuropsychological patient indicators. Notably, there are many ways to provide qualitative management of different Parkinson’s disease issues. For example, one should consider the application of pharmacotherapy to manage this illness and treat the patient as a popular instrument in particular situations (Yenisetti, 2018).
According to Yenisetti (2018), “the pharmacotherapy of PD Is based on the restoration of dopamine levels through the administration of its precursor, levodopa (L-DOPA)” (p. 52). Despite the possible issues and risks of using pharmacology, this method of managing Parkinson’s disease is widely popular and has particular positive outcomes. Moreover, another management strategy that is more straightforward than pharmacology is assessing the patient’s state through verbal and visual communication.
In addition, there are other types of management and interventions for patients with Parkinson’s disease that are essential to mention. Among them are deep brain stimulation (DBS), duodenal administration of a gel formulation of L-DOPA, direct stimulation of post-synaptic dopaminergic receptors, and others (Yenisetti, 2018). The situation shows that many helpful instruments for managing Parkinson’s disease can be applied regarding the type of symptoms and the phase of the illness.
Rehabilitation
The rehabilitation of patients with Parkinson’s disease after their treatment is similarly essential as the treatment itself. Mainly, the person should obtain all necessary help and support to maintain their life and needs effectively and without struggling. One of the most popular methods of providing patients with qualitative rehabilitation is cognitive and psychological support (Kumar & Arjunan, 2021).
Notably, after receiving treatment, the person experiences significant stress, in particular cases of motor problems, movement limitations, and other issues (Kumar & Arjunan, 2021). Therefore, the caregiver should provide the patient with qualitative support to help them combat the previously named symptoms, such as problems with memory, motor issues, and others. In addition to cognitive and psychological support, it is essential to highlight the above-mentioned voice and visual communication with the patient and their education.
Strengths, Limitations, Ethical Principles, and Promotion of Wellbeing
The strengths of the theories regarding Parkinson’s disease are related to the fact that they are supported by various research conducted with different purposes. On the other hand, their limitations are controversial and are related mainly to understanding symptoms and their treatments (Kumar & Arjunan, 2021). As critical ethical principles, it is essential to provide patients with all necessary information concerning the treatment and fully respect their rights and privacy. Considering gaps in the literature, one can name such issues as the absence of comparing treatment methods and stating their pros and cons (Falup-Pecurariu et al., 2022). In addition, to promote well-being, Parkinson’s disease should be managed according to the understanding of the rapid growth of the aging population worldwide.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Parkinson’s disease is a relevant, adverse, and dangerous issue to which humans should pay more attention. Despite many possible treatments, the situation with the aging population still has a negative tendency. In addition, this illness has various symptoms relating to the neuropsychological and psychological systems of the organism. Considering the information in this literature review, it is vital to underline that further research and findings concerning Parkinson’s disease are necessary to minimize its adverse effect on humanity.
This literature review found evidence concerning the epidemiological situation regarding Parkinson’s disease. The aging population issue was stated as the leading cause of Parkinson’s disease. Treatment techniques and assessment instruments were explored, and the results highlighted many choices. In addition, the management and rehabilitation of this illness were researched.
References
Anderson, D. W. (2019). Neuroepidemiology: A tribute to Bruce Schoenberg. CRC Press.
Bloem, B. B., Okun, M. S., & Klein, C. (2021). Parkinson’s disease. The Lancet, 397(10291), 2284-2303. Web.
Chia, S. J., Tan, E.-K., & Chao, Y.-X. (2020). Historical Perspective: Models of Parkinson’s Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(7), 2464. Web.
Falup-Pecurariu, C., Chaudhuri, K. R., & Parry, M. (2022). Sexual dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Elsevier Science.
Kumar, D. K., & Arjunan, S. P. (2021). Techniques for assessment of parkinsonism for diagnosis and rehabilitation. Springer Nature Singapore.
Lewis, P. A., & Spillane, J. E. (2018). The molecular and clinical pathology of neurodegenerative disease. Elsevier Science.
Lindop, F., & Skelly, R. (2021). Parkinson’s disease: An interdisciplinary guide to management. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Martin, C. R., & Preedy, V. R. (2020). The neuroscience of Parkinson’s disease. Elsevier Science.
Narayanan, N., & Albin, R. (2022). Cognition in Parkinson’s disease. Elsevier Science.
Perju‑Dumbrava, L., Barsan, M., Leucuta, D. C., Popa, L. C., Pop, C., Tohanean. N., & Popa, S. L. (2021). Artificial intelligence applications and robotic systems in Parkinson’s disease (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 23(2). Web.
Segura-Aguilar, J. (2021). Clinical studies and therapies in Parkinson’s disease: Translations from preclinical models. Elsevier Science.
Yenisetti, S. C. (2018). Parkinson’s Disease: Understanding pathophysiology and developing therapeutic strategies. IntechOpen.