Introduction
The shipping industry has existed for centuries, and it is still used for intercontinental transportation. The Arctic contains rich oil and gas reserves, which are actively being developed (Vanhatalo et al., 2021). Furthermore, there is an increased interest in Arctic tourism, resulting in more ships in this place (Vanhatalo et al., 2021). However, ships can face various dangers in the water areas covered with ice. The harsh environment of the polar waters can damage human health, equipment, and navigation systems (Fedi, Faury, and Gritsenko, 2018). For example, the rate of accidents in the Arctic was reported to be nineteen times higher than in the open water (Fedi, Faury, and Gritsenko, 2018). Although incidents cannot be eliminated, modern technologies minimize the risk of operations in ice-covered areas (Xu, Kim, and Haugen, 2021). The possible hazards for the marine industry in Arctic waters include low air and water temperature, poor weather conditions, darkness, ice accretion, and problems with navigation (Deling et al., 2019). The dangers of ship operations in polar waters can be diminished by using icebreaking assistance and applying measures described in the Polar Code that also prevent water contamination.
The Polar Code
When the global community realized the importance of developing a universal guideline for preventing ship crashes in ice-covered areas, the Polar Code was created. This document is an international code used by ships that operate in polar waters (International Maritime Organization, 2016). It was developed by the International Maritime Organization in 2015 and became effective in 2017 to ensure the sustainability and safety of shipping (Deggim, 2018). The obligatory amendments in this Code are aimed to protect marine vessels, crew, and passengers from environmental hazards associated with sailing in polar seas (Deggim, 2018). Furthermore, it addressed the importance of protecting the waters of the Northern and Southern poles from contamination that can be caused by oil transportation (International Maritime Organization, 2016). All ships must be technically assessed and receive the certificate to be categorized in one of the three categories: A and B – vessels for polar waters, or C – ships for open waters (International Maritime Organization, 2016). Thus, it appears that accepting this Code was an essential step toward international marine collaboration to ensure people’s and ships’ safety in harsh sea conditions and to protect the seas from oil spills.
Potential Dangers for Ships in Polar Waters
Numerous risks for ships that operate in polar waters were identified and described in the literature. Although the Arctic sea offers a shorter transportation route than the traditional open water areas, working in these ice-covered regions is dangerous (Fu et al., 2018). The least controllable risks are poor weather conditions and low air temperature that can cause malfunctions of navigational equipment and machinery of ships (Deling et al., 2019). Furthermore, snowstorms result in poor visibility that elevates the dangers of collision with icebergs or the vessels that assist in icebreaking (Xu, Kim, and Haugen, 2021). Indeed, half of all accidents in the polar region are collisions that happen despite icebreaker assistance (M. Zhang et al., 2020). According to Zhang et al. (2019), the primary reasons for collision between icebreakers and assisted ships include crew negligence, navigation and communication failure, harsh weather, and unsafe distance between vessels. Still, ships that travel with icebreakers have a lower chance of being stuck in ice (M. Zhang et al., 2020). These factors create a tremendous delay in acquiring a shorter intercontinental transportation route, but the economic benefit should never be placed above safety.
Although most polar water operations include icebreakers, the danger of the main ship being beset in ice still exists. Besetting is when the vessel is surrounded by ice so that it is incapable of moving forward without assistance (Xu, Kim, and Haugen, 2021, p. 2). This risk factor can be complicated with such additional factors as poor weather conditions and reduced performance of ship team (Xu, Kim, and Haugen, 2021). Indeed, human productivity drops in cold weather due to increased energy expenditure to maintain average body temperature (Xu, Kim, and Haugen, 2021). In addition, fatigue and exhaustion from cold in crew members can compromise ship safety. Moreover, environmental factors such as wind, ice thickness, ice concentration, snowing, and rain can contribute to ships besetting in ice (Vanhatalo et al., 2021). Although satellites’ data help determine ice concentration in the polar water, other information such as ice ridging and thickness is unavailable (Vanhatalo et al., 2021). Therefore, it is critical to conduct a risk assessment and accident modeling to predict and prevent potential hazards for ships in the Arctic and Antarctic waters.
Mitigation of Risks
The dangers associated with polar operations can be minimized by applying the Polar Code. According to Bridges (2017), “ice conditions may increase the probability of an incident as it may affect the hull structure, stability characteristics, machinery systems, navigation maintenance” (p. 2). Therefore, preparedness for accidents in ice-covered waters requires unique vessel shapes and stepwise assessment of ships before operations (Karahalil, Ozsoy, and Oktar, 2020). One of the most practical ways to reduce the risk of vessels’ besetting in ice is to form convoys that will include icebreaking crafts that maintain proper distance and communication with the assisted ship (Zhang et al., 2020). Another risk reduction method is to pre-determine relatively safe routes according to the data from satellites about ice distribution and weather conditions (Lehtola et al., 2019). The first part of the Polar Code lists mandatory safety standards that all ships operating in ice-covered waters must meet (Engtrø, Gudmestad, and Njå, 2020). All vessels sent to trans-Arctic voyages need to be stable to ice accretion and low air temperature (International Maritime Organization, 2016). Since prediction models can be inaccurate, ships should always be technically prepared for emergencies.
Conclusion
To sum up, operations in ice-covered polar waters pose significant dangers for ships and crew members. These risks include poor visibility due to extreme weather conditions, damage to the engines and navigational equipment by low air temperature, collision with icebergs or other vessels, besetting in ice, and damage to crew well-being. Still, trans-Arctic transportation allows reducing the distance for delivering products between continents. Moreover, the Arctic region was found to be rich in crude oil and gas reserves; thus, exploration of this area is essential. Therefore, developing safety measures to prevent accidents in polar waters became necessary, which resulted in creating the Polar Code that guides ship assessment before sending it to ice-covered waters. Furthermore, it allows preventing environmental contamination due to accidental oil spillages from vessels. Finally, the application of satellite data about ice concentration and weather conditions and forming convoys equipped with icebreaker crafts can also minimize these risks.
References
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