Introduction
Various ethnic and racial groups in the United States experience significant issues regarding such aspects as low income, the lack of quality education, and the possibility of obtaining appropriate healthcare. These aspects can be summarized under one name: inequality. This literature review aims to identify three sources and thoroughly explore them to gain a deeper understanding of the aspects of this problem. The severe problems concerning inequality in the U.S. require prompt actions to avoid catastrophic outcomes for the entire country.
Browne and Askew’s Article
Overview
The first article chosen for this literature review, written by Browne and Askew (2005), addressed a vital topic regarding inequality among women. Particularly, as the two primary comparisons studied in the article, one should highlight the correlations between Latina and White women, as well as between Black and White women. The authors compare the opportunities for both groups in terms of wages and educational aspects.
First, a comparison is made between data from Latina and White women. Second, Browne and Askew consider the differences in opportunities between Black and White women. The obtained results enable the authors to identify specific factors that highlight the differences between Latina and Black women, as they explore the situation regarding wages and education.
Main Ideas and Findings
As one of the primary findings, the authors noted that the possibility of obtaining a qualitative education has a direct influence on women’s wages. For example, according to Browne and Askew (2005), the differences among women are that “the Black-White earnings differential remained fairly constant and that education plays a pivotal role in the Latina-White earnings gap” (p. 1275). It means Latina and Black women experience different circumstances and unfairness regarding obtaining appropriate education and, consequently, having high enough wages.
Remarkably, the authors explored different periods and analyzed the changes in opportunities for Latina and Black women, comparing them with those of White women. Notably, different times between 1989 and 2003 were explored. Another important finding made by the authors is that the difference between Latina-White and Black-White women has a steady tendency throughout the research period. In addition, while comparing Latina and Black women, particular results showed the most significant earnings disadvantage for Black women compared to White women. However, as the article’s central finding, it is crucial to emphasize that during the researched period, the wages of all the women’s categories tended to increase.
Methods Used
For the primary source of information, the authors utilized a nationally representative probability sample, the CPS, which the Census Bureau created. These statistics were compiled by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and selected for this research due to their large sample sizes (Browne & Askew, 2005). It enables the authors to collect quantitative data on different women’s subgroups and analyze them. However, this study’s method had particular limitations and disadvantages, such as the absence of women’s labor market experience as a question in surveys (Browne & Askew, 2005). It made it more challenging to work with information due to the lack of data regarding the age of women.
Milton and Qureshi’s Article
Overview
Milton and Qureshi (2020) explore another comparison between different groups of women in their article. The authors tend to consider middle-class and working-class British women. Particularly, attention was paid to British Asian working-class and White British middle-class women (Milton & Qureshi, 2020). As the primary characteristic for comparison, Milton and Qureshi (2020) considered the intimacy aspect of women in their second phase of life. In other words, the question of how women in their mid-life evaluate their socio-sexual spaces of dating in post-divorce time was stated. In addition, as one of the vital issues that was considered in the article, it is essential to highlight the point of inequality in intimate life among middle-aged women.
Main Ideas and Findings
The article’s findings reveal a specific correlation between racial and ethnic aspects and people’s opportunities to engage in partnering. The authors stress that compatibility is crucial while searching for a partner. Consequently, when they do not meet particular qualities, it is difficult for women to find another person for a relationship. For example, as Milton and Qureshi (2020) state, “we therefore contend that re-partnering is a matter of concern for intersectional feminism” (p. 163). Among other findings, it is vital to state that such factors as racial and gender inequalities, as well as class inequalities, significantly worsen the situation regarding the willingness of middle-aged women to find a new partner.
One of the central topics of the study was how single women act in society and what they feel about being in this position. Remarkably, the results showed that a high level of hesitancy is standard for many women (Milton & Qureshi, 2020). In addition, the data depicted that single women do not have role models in socio-sexual spaces that they can follow. It means they are unsure about specific dating rules and standards and can be confused due to their age and a lack of understanding of how to behave.
Methods Used and Limitations
As a method employed by Milton and Qureshi (2020) in their research, the use of interviews is the primary concept. Each of the two authors, Sarah and Kaveri, conducted the study separately. Sarah’s study, conducted between 2011 and 2013, aimed to communicate with and interview women who had experienced divorce and were seeking new relationships. Particularly, as a research setting, Sarah used dancing classes and collaborated with those who attended these classes. Sarah’s study was conducted in London and included twenty participants who were formally interviewed, as well as other individuals from classes with whom communication was conducted informally (Milton & Qureshi, 2020). Notably, the participants’ average age was approximately 50 years, which enabled Sarah to collect qualitative data regarding the research question.
On the contrary, Kaveri’s research method differs from Sarah’s due to its complexity and formality. As a research location, East London and Peterborough were selected, with a focus on working-class areas. Remarkably, Kaveri conducted his study for several years and collected vital and thorough information.
However, Kaveri also employed the interview method, communicating with 74 participants. Notably, 51 of them were women, and 23 were men (Milton & Qureshi, 2020). Regarding the study limitations, Milton and Qureshi (2020) note that, despite employing different methods of communication and conducting interviews with participants, the number of participants interviewed was insufficient to obtain the desired qualitative data. Therefore, it was not possible to thoroughly understand the situation regarding British Asian working-class and White British middle-class women despite some vital findings and conclusions.
Zare et al.’s Article
Overview
The third chosen article for this literature review is one written by Zare et al. (2022). The first primary issue on which the authors focused their work is the problem of obesity among men in the United States. Zare et al. (2022) aim to identify various factors that contribute to the causes of obesity. Specifically, the study focused on men aged 20 years and above.
Particular attention was paid to such factors as income. The authors state that this issue significantly impacts people’s ability to eat correctly and in a healthy manner (Zare et al., 2022). In addition, the authors focused their research on the ethnic and racial aspects while considering the differences among people with obesity. Consequently, the research aims to identify various specifications that highlight the differences among men with different incomes, ethnic, and racial backgrounds, to understand the aspects of inequality in the United States.
Main Ideas and Findings
The primary finding of the article is that the inequality in income creates adverse effects on men’s problems of obesity. Mainly, the authors state that the absence of resources to treat obesity and create an appropriate diet is caused by the lower incomes of men. In addition, the worst cases of obesity require medical treatment and specific approaches, which are also challenging to obtain for people with low incomes.
Moreover, while considering the ethnic and racial issues connected with obesity, the authors also underline that such groups as non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and Mexican Americans with low incomes have a higher risk of obesity. In conclusion, Zare et al. emphasize the importance of creating equal opportunities and circumstances for men while mitigating income inequality. It is essential to improve the situation with obesity within the country and increase men’s health and access to quality treatment.
Methods Used
The article’s authors chose the period from 1999 to 2016 for analysis. Particularly, the information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys was selected as the primary basis for the study (Zare et al., 2022). As stated earlier, the primary focus was on the tendencies and peculiarities of obesity. To research this point, Zare et al. (2022) used a body mass index of≥30 kg/m² (Zare et al., 2022).
For the main calculations, the authors employed the poverty income ratio (PIR) and Gini coefficient (GC) to measure income inequality. Notably, the sample size for the research was 17,238 adult men. Among them, according to Zare et al. (2022), were “9,511 White Non-Hispanic White (NHW), 4,166 Non-Hispanic Black (NHB), and 3,561 Mexican Americans (MA)” (p. 1). Therefore, it can be stated that this study is valuable for the research topic due to the considerable sample size, which allowed the researchers to obtain vital quantitative data.
Differences, Similarities, and Importance for the Research
The main similarity among the three chosen articles is that they all focused on ethnic and racial issues. It is essential for the chosen literature review topic because every source gives vital findings and conclusions about the problems caused by inequality in different spectrums. On the other hand, regarding the differences, one can cite the researchers’ methods, including formal and informal interviews, as well as the use of specific databases, such as the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. It highlights the differences between more practical and more theoretical spectrums of studies.
Conclusion
Therefore, the three explored articles help shed light on inequality based on race or ethnicity by comparing different groups of people in terms of ethnic and racial aspects, while correlating them with White people or those with high incomes. The conclusions, such as the direct influence of educational aspects on women’s wages or higher obesity rates among low-income men, are essential to understanding the modern processes related to the chosen topic.
References
Browne, I., & Askew, R. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and wage inequality among women. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(9), 1275-1292.
Milton, S., & Qureshi, K. (2020). Intersectional inequalities and intimate relationships: Dating, class and ‘race/ethnicity’ among divorced women in the ‘second phase’ of life. Sociology, 55(1), 163-178.
Zare, H., Gilmore, D. R., Meyerson, N. S., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022). Income inequality, race/ethnicity, and obesity in U.S. men 20 years and older: 1999 to 2016. American Journal of Men’s Health, 1-12.