Introduction
El Salvadorean poet, journalist, and political activist Roque Dalton was born in El Salvador and is regarded as one of Latin America’s greatest poets. Dalton traveled extensively in Central America and Europe in the late 1950s and early 1960s, learning about various political movements and immersing himself in the local cultures. Dalton joined the Marxist-Leninist People’s Revolutionary Army (ERP) in 1961 after initially joining the Communist Party of El Salvador. He took part in revolutionary actions and frequently found himself in custody. Due to internal strife within the ERP, Roque Dalton’s life was cut short when he was killed by his own teammates in 1975.
“Two Poems on Urban Buses” was most likely written in El Salvador around the 1960s or early 1970s, a period of intense social and political upheaval (Lyeand Nealon 240). The poem depicts the diverse viewpoints and social groups that were present in this era’s Salvadoran society. Dalton draws attention to the injustices and issues that influenced the nation’s political environment by presenting these points of view. Overall, Dalton uses characters in his poetry to represent Marx’s dialectic and Gramsci’s hegemony to emphasize the need for change that was especially prevalent in El Salvador during the time of the poem’s creation.
Dalton’s Presentation of Karl Marx’s Theory of the Dialectic in Poetry
Marx’s dialectic theory is predicated on the notion that history is not a simple process of change resulting from conflict between opposing forces but rather a complex process of change that emerges from that conflict. This conflict generates the contradictions and conflicts that advance society, and it is this conflict that drives historical development. The idea of dialectic, which relates to the procedure of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, lies at the core of this theory (Rahim 200). A thesis, an existing notion or circumstance, serves as the starting point of this process. An antithesis, or a force or idea that is opposed to this thesis, is then put forth.
As a result of the tension that arises from the conflict between these opposing forces, a synthesis—a fresh notion or state of affairs that combines aspects of the thesis and the antithesis—is eventually produced. Marx believed that the history of human societies has shown us this dialectical process in action. According to him, the classes that makeup societies have their own interests and values and are segregated. The struggle between these classes produces the conflicts and contradictions that propel historical change. For Marx, the ultimate goal of this battle was the development of a classless society where everyone is equal and free.
Marx’s theory is relevant to Dalton’s poetry because of the deep inequality between the ruling class and the working class that characterized El Salvador’s society in the 1960s. The affluent landowners, businesspeople, and politicians who made up the ruling class were in charge of the nation’s political and economic structures – they essentially form Marx’s thesis. Workers, farmers, and other oppressed groups that were mostly shut out of political influence and economic opportunity constituted the working class or antithesis.
In Roque Dalton’s “Two Poems on Urban Buses,” Don Francisco de Sola’s persona serves to highlight the conflict between these two factions (“Classic and Contemporary Poetry”). Don Francisco is portrayed as an objective observer who maintains his neutrality in the face of the hardships and difficulties that the working class encounters. Dalton implies that the ruling class in El Salvador was cut off from the needs and concerns of the working class by presenting Don Francisco in this manner.
The ruling elite was more focused on preserving its money and power than on meeting the demands and worries of those they were in charge of. Don Francisco’s impression of neutrality emphasizes this distance and lack of empathy even more. He is not actively attempting to worsen the lot of the working class or actively attempting to do the opposite. Instead, he prefers to maintain the status quo by remaining impartial and distant.
This passivity is precisely the reason why no synthesis is possible – as long as people in power, such as Don Francisco, are not willing to change their perspective, the working class will remain oppressed (Batres45). Dalton’s poem suggests that genuine change can only occur when individuals in positions of authority are prepared to hear out and respond to the demands and issues of the oppressed and disenfranchised.
Antonio Gramsci’s Theory of Hegemony in Dalton’s Poems
Gramsci’s theory is important in understanding Dalton’s poetry because it provides insight into the power dynamics in society through the idea of hegemony. Power is not just exercised through coercion or physical force; it can also be done by forging a dominant ideology that the rest of society accepts as common sense (Ciobanu 72). The ruling class keeps its hold on power by fostering a hegemonic culture that penetrates all facets of social life. A shared set of values, ideas, and conventions acknowledged by the rest of society are created through civil society institutions, including the media, education, religion, and other cultural institutions.
This hegemonic culture reinforces the dominance of the ruling class by establishing its legitimacy and influencing how people perceive the outside world. A complicated and ongoing process of creating a hegemonic culture necessitates the participation of the ruling class. The ruling class must endeavor to foster a culture that reflects its interests and beliefs and is viewed as legitimate and natural by the rest of society. A variety of cultural and ideological tools, such as propaganda, instruction, and the media, are used to influence how individuals view the world.
The idea of hegemony was particularly pertinent in the context of El Salvador in the 1960s when the ruling class attempted to hold onto power by forging a dominant ideology that both legitimized its rule and influenced how people perceived the outside world. In Dalton’s “Two Poems on Urban Buses,” the character of the “august dame of the middle class” serves as a clear example of how the ruling class uses ideology to maintain its power (“Classic and Contemporary Poetry”).
The “august dame” is a woman of privilege who demands that men give up their seats to decent women. Many people in society view this demand as common sense, which is founded on the premise that women are innately weaker and require protection. Dalton challenges this narrative to show how the ruling class manipulates ideology in order to hold onto power.
In order to support its rule, the ruling class has created and promoted a set of values and ideas that it refers to as the “August Dame.” Part of a larger cultural narrative that upholds the traditional gender roles and power dynamics that were pervasive in El Salvadorian society is the notion that women are weaker and require protection. Dalton examines this cultural narrative and demonstrates how it helps to keep the ruling elite in power through the persona of the “august dame” (Batres 52). She is perpetuating the notion that women are weaker and require protection by insisting that males give up their seats to decent women. In turn, this strengthens the power relationships between men and women, as well as between the affluent and lower classes. Dalton’s poem offers a potent critique of the power dynamics that existed in El Salvadoran society by challenging these presumptions and highlighting the ways in which they support the status quo.
The practical implication of Dalton’s poems was to inspire and mobilize social and political action towards a more just and equitable society. He aimed to reveal the inequities the working class faced by challenging the power structures in El Salvadorian society and encouraging others to join the movement for change. First, he promoted a more complex and critical analysis of societal power relations. Dalton offered a more thorough and critical framework for comprehending how power is wielded in society by referencing the ideas of Marx and Gramsci in the form of character behaviors. This knowledge empowers people and groups to recognize and address the causes of power and inequality in society, which can result in more effective and focused social and political action.
Second, Dalton’s poetry stimulated social and political action toward a more just and equitable society. Dalton gave the disadvantaged and disenfranchised a voice via his poems and inspired others to join the movement for change. Activism, organization, and political involvement are just a few of the possible shapes that this social and political activity might take. Dalton’s work sought to bring about significant and long-lasting change in El Salvadoran society by motivating action toward a more just and equitable society. He chose poetry as an artistic method of highlighting social issues and raising awareness of them. Ultimately, Dalton’s utilization of the theories of Marx and Gramsci can be interpreted as a rallying cry for people who were oppressed and disenfranchised in society.
Conclusion
In conclusion, “Two Poems on Urban Buses” is Dalton’s artistic representation of the dialectic struggles theorized by Marx and the hegemonic cultural pressure emphasized by Gramsci. Dalton saw the deep inequalities between the ruling elite and the working class in El Salvador and worked to change the status quo. Marx’s dialectic theory provided him with an explanation of why social conflict exists and how it should be resolved. Dalton reframed Marx’s vision into the character of Don Francisco, who is not willing to change and is thus responsible for the suffering of the working class.
Meanwhile, Gramsci’s ideas of hegemony gave him another explanation for the roots of El Salvador’s contemporary social issues. Dalton fit these considerations into the character of “August Dame,” who represented the crucial force that perpetuated the cycle of hegemony and traditional gender and social roles. By creating characters representing Marx and Gramsci’s conceptions, Dalton aimed to expose the injustices the working class experienced and motivate social and political action in El Salvadorian society.
Works Cited
Batres, Samari Yanira. Irony and Politics in the Poetry of Roque Dalton, José Emilio Pacheco, and Nicanor Parra. 2021. PhD dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Ciobanu, Mihaela. “Antonio Gramsci: The Roots of Italian Communism.” Political Studies Forum, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 65-92.
“Classic and Contemporary Poetry.” PoetryExplorer. Web.
Lye, Colleen, and Christopher Nealon, editors. After Marx: Literature, Theory, and Value in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press, 2022.
Rahim, Eric. “Marx—From Hegel and Feuerbach to Adam Smith: A New Synthesis.” International Critical Thought, vol. 8, no. 2, 2018, pp. 193-209.