Introduction
Methamphetamine is a white crystal powder usually used as a stimulant. The drug has a long history and can be traced back to Japan, the first to manufacture it in 1919(Paulus et al., 2020). The drug possesses limited therapeutic capabilities and is factory-made in clandestine laboratory setups (Paulus et al., 2020). The drug is closely related to the less famous amphetamine and has international regulations. Over the years, methamphetamine has posed a significant challenge to the world in the fight against drugs and drug dependency.
Chemistry
Methamphetamine belongs to a larger group of drugs that can be categorized under the phenethylamine family. The phenethylamine family includes several medicines that might be hallucinogenic, stimulants, and entactogens (Paulus et al., 2020). Methamphetamine is also known as N, α – dimethylbenzeneethanamine since the α – carbon atom can have two enantiomers, S- and R- stereoisomers.
Laboratory Analysis
Some tests can be conducted to determine the presence of methamphetamine. Being a secondary amine, methamphetamine can be separated from the primary amines, such as amphetamine, through the Simon test. The Simon test will produce red and blue colors for primary and secondary amines, respectively (Paulus et al., 2020). Another additional test, the Marquis Field test, will result in brown coloration. Using the mass spectrum, the identifiable ions are 57, 134, 42, 65, 58, 91, and 56. In cases where a urine sample is to be analyzed for traces of the drug, the detection limit should be less than ten micrograms per liter using gas chromatography.
Molecular Structure and Physical Form
Methamphetamine has a molecular weight and formula of 149.2 g/mol and C10H15N. Methamphetamine common sault has hydrochloride salt and appears oof-white, crystal, or white soluble in water (Jones, 2022). The purest form of the drug exists in crystalline hydrochloride form, and the Illicit ones are packaged in the form of a white powder, mainly referred to meth or “ice” (Jones, 2022). Nonetheless, in whichever form, it still poses significant risks and challenges.
Manufacturing of Methamphetamine
There are several methamphetamine production methods. In most cases, the reduction method produces the S-enantiomer of I-ephedrine. In some cases, chemists or manufacturers use d-pseudoephedrine to deliver the S-enantiomer by reduction (Jones, 2022). Pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are accessible commercially but not as standalone products and can only be accessed in some products. Using natural products, the compound ephedrine exists freely in the Ephedra vulgaris L. plant, popularly used in China as Ma Huang. Any reductive amination and the Luckert route can produce the racemic mixture of S- and R-enantiomers.
Iodine/Red Phosphorus
The principal chemicals for this method are red phosphorus, pseudoephedrine or ephedrine, and iodine. Most of the hydrochloric acid to be used in this method, especially when the supply is limited, is produced by the reaction of red phosphorus with iodine in water (Jayanthi et al., 2021). This is the best method for targeting high yield and purity.
Birch
The manufacturing of birch requires anhydrous ammonia, pseudoephedrine or ephedrine, and lithium metal or, in some cases, sodium. This method is also known as the Nazi method and is preferred by independent producers Jayanthi et al., 2021). This method is capable of producing one quantity of d-methamphetamine.
Iodine/Hypo Phosphorus Acid
Any manufacturer who opts for this method uses iodine, pseudoephedrine or ephedrine, and hypoposphoric acid. The acid production for this method is slightly different from that of iodine/red phosphorus, as the target acid to be produced is hypophosphorous acid (Jayanthi et al., 2021). In instances where the manufacturer cannot access the red phosphorus, this method is preferred as it has a high yield of d-methamphetamine. However, care must be taken due to the by-product of phosphine gas, which is highly explosive.
Drug Schedule
Certain chemicals, substances, and drugs can be classified into several drug schedules. These are Schedule I, II, III, IV, and V based on the dependency potential, drug abuse, and drug medical use. Methamphetamine is a drug Schedule II for several reasons (Jones, 2022). Drugs under this category are highly susceptible to abuse, with physical dependency or severe psychological dependency. Medications under this schedule are hazardous and include, but are not limited a number of abused substances such as cocaine, methadone, meperidine, fentanyl, and Ritalin.
Mode of Use and Action
Mode of Use
There are several ways in which the drug can be administered into the body, including injected, ingested, smoked, or snorted. The Methamphetamine crystal form can be smoked due to its volatile nature and makes the user feel the intense rush feeling (Han, 2021). On the other hand, when the user wants to feel a euphoric high, they resort to snorting. The effect of the blood can go on for many days without leaving the bloodstream.
Mode of Action
There are several ways in which methamphetamine acts on the nervous system. The drug can exert multiple effects on the brain and increases the dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and adrenaline cytoplasmic concentration by working as a highly potent monoamine releaser. It decreases the dopamine transporter (DAT) expression, blocks the intracellular vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) activity, increases tyrosine hydroxylase expression and movement, and blocks monoamine oxidase activity (Jayanthi et al., 2021). Additionally, grey matter deficit in the paralimbic cortices, striatal expansion, medial temporal lobe damage, white-matter hypertrophy, and reduced hippocampus volume are seen in methamphetamine users’ brain pictures.
When taken through oral dose, the drug takes roughly 10 to 30 minutes before it starts to take effect and can last for several hours. Later use of the drug may result in lethargy, restlessness, irritability, depression, and anxiety. The R-isomer is less effective than the S-isomer. Since S isomer has higher activity, its therapeutic dose is usually taken orally and does not exceed 25 mg (Jayanthi et al., 2021). The drug has a plasma level of between 0.001 and 0.005ml/L. The drug is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream when taken orally and even more quickly when injected into the bloodstream (Jayanthi et al., 2021). In cases where the drug exceeds 0.5 ml/L in the bloodstream, the user experiences overdose symptoms, which can be fatal.
Effects
Short-Term Effects on the Body
The short-term effect of the drug includes the immediate effect experienced by users. Being a powerful stimulant, users may experience decreased appetite, increased physical activity, and wakefulness. Several cardiovascular diseases have been associated with methamphetamine’s immediate effect, characterized by increased blood pressure and irregular and rapid heartbeat (Palamar et al., 2020). In some cases, users may experience elevated body temperature, and cases of overdose can be accompanied by convulsions.
Long-Term Effects on the Body
Methamphetamine drug addicts may exhibit the following symptoms, which include violent behavior, confusion, significant anxiety, and insomnia. Over the years, as methamphetamine addicts reach critical stages, users tend to develop paranoia, delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, and other psychotic behaviors (Palamar et al., 2020). These symptoms tend to last longer, months or years after the user has quit the drug. Individuals who have experienced psychotic episodes, stress, and hallucinations can produce spontaneous recurrence of psychotic symptoms.
Effects of the Drug on Society
The use of methamphetamine has corrupted the morals of society, leading to an increase in vices. Methamphetamine is a global crisis and a severe burden to the socio-economic, legal, environmental, and general public health. The social and interpersonal addiction consequences are disastrous. Methamphetamine dependency can lead to the deterioration of existing and newly formed relationships (Schwarzbach et al., 2022).
Methamphetamine use is related to increased violence and crime rates among the people who are using it. Participation in such activities bears a heavy burden to the judicial system. In most of the cases, parents who are having methamphetamine dependency neglect their children. Most of the children with drug use dependents end up in foster care instead of their relatives. Similarly, neglect of such children can lead to the children being exposed to harmful chemicals or methamphetamine itself.
Effects of the Society on the Drug
The society has contributed mainly to the prevalence of the drug and the popularity it has gained. While most of these drugs, such as heroin, are produced outside the United States and smuggled into the country, a more significant share of methamphetamine is made in the United States. The majority of the drugs are distributed by small manufacturers, which, in this case, sell these drugs to their friends, relatives, and co-workers (Schwarzbach et al., 2022). Wide availability and low cost combined with economic and cultural factors have contributed to the alluring of people into using the drug.
In understanding the effects of society on the drug, it is best to analyze its spread. In rural and semi-rural areas, drug manufacturing provides job opportunities for many people who would otherwise miss out on the legal job market. In some cases, the drug first gained roots among middle-class citizens before being introduced to the larger population (Schwarzbach et al., 2022). Being a drug that quickly stimulates the mind, the middle-class part of society sometimes tries to use the drug without submitting it to everyone.
Legal Consequences of Possessing the Drug
Possession of methamphetamine is taken seriously by both the federal and the state governments. Being a Schedule II drug, it can attract heavy penalties. Most residences are categorized under felony charges, and any control of it is handled with extreme severity. Similarly, an individual possessing any material used to produce the drug with the intent to manufacture methamphetamine can lead to similar charges (Siegfried et al., 2020). Under federal law, penalties can result in a conviction of under two years and over 30 years.
Moreover, an individual can be imposed with drug rehabilitation and steep fines. Some parameters can increase the severity of the penalties. For example, an individual arrested by a playground or school can face severe penalties. In some instances where the police believe that an individual sells the drug, such individual charges will be different. Such an individual is charged with possession with an intent to distribute. Living intending to distribute attracts charges and penalties that can go as high as 10,000 USD (Siegfried et al., 2020). The law is strict on the possession of methamphetamine.
Current Treatment for Abusers
Pharmacotherapies
Over the years, several pharmacotherapies have been tried to tackle methamphetamine dependence and disorder. Most of the approaches have used substitution therapies, antidepressants, and antipsychotic drugs. There are no specific approved medications by the FDA for the treatment of use disorder. In most cases, the drug is used and tried for other drug use disorders, such as cocaine addiction (Siegfried et al., 2020). Several clinical trials have focused on calcium channel blockers such as amlodipine, opioid antagonists such as Naltrexone, Serotonergic agents such as Ondansetron and Mirtazapine, Cholinesterase inhibitors such as Acetylcholine, Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) agents such as Baclofen and Gabapentin, Dopamine antagonists such as Respirodine, d-Amphetamine, and Modafinil.
Behavioral Treatment
Behavioral therapy is considered the mainstay of treatment of Methamphetamine addiction and use disorder. The main aim of behavioral therapy is to enable drug users to practice abstinence, harm minimization, and drug use reduction. When combined with psychosocial intervention, the other objectives of the interventions include promoting treatment compliance, helping people with a substance use disorder avoid relapse, and retaining and engaging the methamphetamine-dependent users in the program. Methods used under this category of treatment include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), psychodynamic therapy (PDT), contingency management, interpersonal therapy, motivational interviewing (IM), and twelve-step intervention (Paulus et al., 2020). Similarly, additional services are accompanied by these therapies, including drug counseling, clinical management, and case management.
Conclusion
To conclude, this paper has done a detailed analysis of methamphetamine, ranging from the production to the point of sale and the end user. Similarly, the report has analyzed the chemistry behind methamphetamine, including its physical form, molecular structure, and the methods used to determine and analyze the compound. Additionally, different conditions can be used to consume the drug, such as through injection and smoking and mode of action.
Consequently, methamphetamine has been identified as a dopamine elevator. Due to the addiction as a result of consistent dopamine elevation, short and long-term effects have been discouraged as well. The treatment plans used and the impact on society and individuals have been outline. The paper concludes the discussion on the consequences of possessing the substance, including the charges and fines one can expect.
References
Jayanthi, S., Daiwile, A. P., & Cadet, J. L. (2021). Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine: Main effects and mechanisms. Experimental Neurology, 344. Web.
Jones, C. M., Houry, D., Han, B., Baldwin, G., Vivolo‐Kantor, A., & Compton, W. M. (2022). Methamphetamine use in the United States: Epidemiological update and implications for prevention, treatment, and harm reduction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1508(1), 3-22. Web.
Palamar, J. J., Han, B. H., & Keyes, K. M. (2020). Trends in characteristics of individuals who use methamphetamine in the United States, 2015-2018. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 213. Web.
Paulus, M. P., & Stewart, J. L. (2020). Neurobiology, clinical presentation, and treatment of methamphetamine use disorder: A review. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(9), 959-966. Web.
Schwarzbach, V., Lenk, K., & Laufs, U. (2020). Methamphetamine‐related cardiovascular diseases. ESC Heart Failure, 7(2), 407-414. Web.
Siefried, K. J., Acheson, L. S., Lintzeris, N., & Ezard, N. (2020). Pharmacological treatment of methamphetamine/amphetamine dependence: A systematic review. CNS Drugs, 34(4), 337-365. Web.