Introduction
Animals often have a prominent role in the world’s mythologies and folklore. The fox is a common figure in many traditions, representing a cunning trickster or, sometimes, messenger, figure (Ashkenazi 148; Lihui and An 239). This figure is not necessarily negative or malevolent but is often described as dangerous if mistreated. However, in addition to this thematic convergence, differences exist in different traditions’ portrayals of the fox. For instance, one can compare two myths from the Japanese and Menominee (Native American) folklore. In the Japanese story, a man marries a fox in human form, who runs away after he refuses to kill puppies that scared or offended her (Ashkenazi 150). In the Menominee story, Fox repeatedly plays tricks on his lazy friend Wolf, ultimately killing him (Bastian and Mitchell 100). These tales highlight the differences between the Japanese and Native American views of the same animal, particularly in trustworthiness, interactions with humans, and malevolence. Furthermore, these conclusions can be extrapolated to the two cultures’ views of the supernatural.
Comparison
Trustworthiness
In both myths, the fox character is initially described as having a long-term and positive relationship with someone else: Fox’s friendship with Wolf and the fox woman’s husband. This relationship is shown as well-established, with the characters in both cases living together for some unknown amount of time. The Japanese fox displays significant trustworthiness by agreeing to marry the man and bearing his child. Furthermore, she does not act in response to the offending dogs, merely asking her husband to kill them.
In contrast, the Menominee Fox is initially said to be friends living together with Wolf, but he consistently betrays his friend’s trust in increasingly dangerous ways. The first trick, sending Wolf to a nearby house in hopes that the people who lived there would feed him, can be justified as trying to punish him for being lazy. However, as the story continues, Fox exploits his friend’s trust further, eating the cache of maple sugar they had made and hidden together. Finally, he makes several attempts to kill Wolf, ultimately succeeding.
This difference in how trustworthy the fox is to the Japanese and the Menominee can be expanded to the rest of these traditions’ mythical elements. In the former, the fox is shown to be loyal and trustworthy, forging a bond and maintaining it despite her disagreements with her husband, and returning to make amends after fleeing. In the latter, Fox is deceitful, consistently sabotaging his established relationship with Wolf, by exploiting his trust and gullibility, ultimately killing him. Thus, as the animal motifs in myth can be applied both to humans and animals, these stories can be interpreted as describing the two cultures’ different general outlooks. The Japanese myth shows a generally consistent and positive outlook where others can be trusted and amends can be made. The Menominee story, conversely, serves as a reminder of the hostility that humans, as well as nature in general, can exhibit.
Interactions With Humans
Another marked difference between the two myths is the animals’ interaction with the human world. The fox woman in the Japanese myth openly integrates with human society by marrying the man and having his child. The two interact as equals and a form of compromise is reached in the end. She takes on human form and human characteristics throughout the story.
The Menominee Fox and Wolf exhibit human characteristics, as well, but largely act as animals within the story. When interacting with one another, they talk, and fashion a crate and make maple sugar; clearly, human activities that make use of tools and fire. They also hunt as animals do and do not use tools otherwise. When interacting with humans, however, they are portrayed as regular animals, not talking or exhibiting any unusual behaviors.
This difference underlines how differently the Japanese and the Menominee view their supernatural. The fox woman in the Japanese story acts and looks like a human, interacting with her husband (and, one can assume, the rest of society, although the story does not mention it). As part of the supernatural world, she is an example of such entities, as well as animals, being humanized in the Japanese folklore and worldview, as well as acting in harmony with the world of humans. The Menominee story, on the other hand, paints a clear divide between humans and nature. The animal characters only act in human-like ways when no humans are present, and the interaction between them and humans is limited.
Malevolence
Another notable difference between the two myths is the fox’s malevolence towards others. The Japanese myth presents the fox as benevolent, causing no harm and fleeing when she senses danger. She is put into the traditional nurturing role of the wife and mother. When slighted, she resolves the conflict and agrees to return to sleep with her husband, though she does not fully resume the wife/mother role.
Fox in the Menominee story, conversely, is openly malevolent and antagonistic. While his acts of stealing chickens and bread from humans can be justified by normal animal behavior and hunger, his treachery and treatment of Wolf belie a significantly more hostile nature. Similarly, the goal of his tricks turns from punishing his lazy friend to murdering him for the same laziness. He does not attempt to make amends, teach Wolf, or help him get better at obtaining food. Furthermore, he tricks Wolf so he can eat the maple sugar they had made together.
This difference is particularly interesting, as it puts the same animal in opposite roles. The Japanese myth shows the importance of harmony and the generally benevolent, or, at least, not actively malevolent nature of supernatural beings. The Menominee Fox is portrayed as malevolent, ruthless, and selfish, acting out of greed and pettiness and causing great harm and, ultimately, death, to his supposed friend.
Conclusion
The two myths make use of the same animal motif, the fox, from two different perspectives. Besides referencing the same animal, there are no notable similarities between the two. However, the differences allow one to gain an insight into the two cultures’ views on animals, the supernatural, and their values. The two tales ascribe nearly opposite qualities to the fox. Where the Japanese kitsune is shown as trustworthy and loyal, the Menominee story portrays Fox as a treacherous thief. In contrast with the Japanese fox woman’s willing integration with the human world, the animal characters in the Menominee tale inhabit a world that is mostly separate from that of humans. Finally, the Native American Fox is a malevolent character, causing significant harm with little justification, while the Japanese myth shows its fox as a benevolent and friendly character. Although based on just one portrayal of the animal in myth, these differences allow one to see the different approaches these cultures take to it and their beliefs about the supernatural.
Works Cited
Bastian, Dawn E., and Judy K. Mitchell. Handbook of Native American Mythology. ABC-CLIO, 2004.
Lihui, Yang, and Dening An. Handbook of Chinese Mythology. ABC-CLIO, 2004.
Michael Ashkenazi. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. ABC-CLIO, 2003.