Introduction
Up until the 16th century, the idea of creating a Muslim caliphate that would unite all Islamic lands together was seen as the end goal. This idea, however, did not become true, and the reality of disparate secular “Islamic” sultanates was established, with these sultanates covering the area from Arabia to the East of Europe. The sultanates that were formed included the Ottoman Empire, the Iranian Caliphate, the Harasan Empire, and the Mongol Khanate, among others, extending from the regions of the Middle East towards parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. The transition towards a unified political, geographical, and religious formation became impossible due to the conditions prevailing in the 1500s, such as the geographical extent of the zone and the sultanates’ influence competition.
Barriers to the Creation of a United Muslim Caliphate
Geography
The first problem that made the establishment of a universal Muslim caliphate impossible was the scope of the geographical areas covered by the numerous Muslim-populated lands. As mentioned, the zones covered several continents, and a vast territory like this would be difficult to control (Yilmaz, 2019). The Ottoman Empire, for example, extended from Persia and Armenia to Greece and the Balkan Peninsula; The Harasan Empire covered the territories extending from Azerbaijan to Algeria (Imber, 2019). The Mongol Khanate was located in the area that extended from Crimea in the west to the territories surrounding the river Volga in the east. At the same time, the Iranian Caliphate included the geographical areas from Dagestan in the northeast to Persia in the west.
There were other sultanates as well, covering more areas. Thus, it can be seen that the supposed territory of an ideal caliphate was considerably vast. While it is not impossible to create a political formation covering a large territory, such conditions complicate this process significantly. Thus, they also prevented the creation of the universal caliphate.
Competition
Another aspect that made the idea of the establishment of a universal Muslim caliphate implausible was the influence of competition. Most sultanates were highly influential and had their areas of interest, which they controlled economically, politically, and militarily. The Ottoman Empire, for example, controlled all essential routes that connected Eastern Europe and the Middle East; it also significantly influenced the space between the Reghebechi and the Bosporus (Imber, 2019). The Harasan Empire was in control of the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and several coastal ports. The Mongol Khanate was one of the most influential sultanates in the 1500s, as it dominated the area between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea and the routes connecting East Asia and Europe (Amitai & Morgan, 2021). The Iranian Caliphate had a significant influence in Asia.
It can be seen that all these formations could compete for more power and influence inside the ideal caliphate. Typically, unification happens when a particular formation that is larger and more developed manages to take control of other formations that are weaker. Unification on equal terms, especially in the 16th-century conditions, was highly unlikely.
Conclusion
To conclude, even though the idea of forming a universal Muslim caliphate was widespread, it was not plausible. The geographic scope of the areas covered by the newly formed sultanates would make it challenging to create and control a unique political formation; moreover, when smaller formations can compete for political and economic influence, that complicates the unification.
References
Amitai, R., Morgan, D. (Ed.). (2021). The Mongol Empire and its legacy. Brill.
Imber, C. (2019). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The structure of power. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Yilmaz, H. (2019). Caliphate redefined. Princeton University Press.