The history of philosophy demonstrates that many thinkers contributed to the development of this science and demonstrated different approaches to the perception of the word. Many of them had similar views, yet their differences led to lengthy debates, criticism of each other’s work, and the formation of groups of followers. David Hume is one such philosopher as his views and ideas were full of imperialism and skepticism, which were often not supported by other philosophers and governments. In this paper, David Hume’s biography and his main philosophical works will be studied to understand his ideas and find application in modern society.
David Hume is an eighteen-century philosopher who lived and worked in Scotland and England. He was born May 7, 1711, into a family of Lord of Ninewells, who owned a small manor; David’s mother, Katrina, was the daughter of Sir David Falconer, one of the leading judges in Scotland (Rasmussen 19). David Hume’s father died very early, so his mother and grandfather had more influence on him, and Hume was forced to study law at the University of Edinburgh. However, since the law was too boring for the student, he preferred various literature of the university, including philosophy. In 1734, Hume worked in a merchant’s office in Bristol but soon left to study philosophy and write his first philosophical work, The Treatise, consisting of three volumes (Rasmussen 21). Although the three-volume edition did not receive much praise, Hume continued to work with philosophy, promoting the more successful Essays, Moral and Political, but did not immediately achieve national fame and stable income (Rasmussen 26). Over the following decades, Hume held various positions and continued to publish books that gained recognition from the audience, and some scholars began to see him as a talented philosopher and writer.
In 1763, Hume became the British embassy in Paris under the Earl of Hertford (Fieser). He did not spend a long time in Paris but managed to communicate with many philosophers. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who lived with Hume in England, even accused Hume of conspiracy, and although the philosopher justified himself, this conflict worsened his reputation (Fieser). Until 1769, Hugh actively participated in England’s public life but later moved back to Edinburgh to find peace and solitude. Hume continued to work on his books and published several volumes of History, as well as controversial philosophical treatises, such as Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, which refutes the existence of God (Fieser). Such books and ideas were often banned in the eighteenth century, so it took Hume moderation for his work to be published. The philosopher died in 1776 in Edinburgh.
Hume had a significant influence on the history, philosophy, economics, and social life of Britain as he communicated with many famous philosophers, such as Adam Smith. Moreover, the philosopher published many works, in which he used historical and logical arguments to justify his ideas. For example, Hume published multiple volumes of History during his life, which were later reprinted and widely used by students in the eighteenth century. He also proposed several ideas of “classical economics” and formed an economic theory. However, the most important is that Hume developed a new look at philosophy as inductive science of human nature, which was new and necessary for developing the science (Fieser). Thus, Hume’s philosophical ideas are the most popular and will be discussed in this paper.
Hume’s theories and works are notable for skepticism and criticism of most of the philosophical concepts of his time. However, the validity and consistency of these theories, as well as the style of writing, allowed Hume to gain popularity and find supporters. At the same time, many of Hume’s ideas influenced famous philosophers’ works and became their inspiration. However, in this paper, only some theories and concepts will be considered, since, during his life, Hume wrote and published many scientific works that require careful study.
Hume’s theory of morality is a concept that contrasts the prevailing theories of the eighteenth century and offers a new perspective on the motives of human behavior. Hume’s theory of morality is also called utility theory since this concept is one of the central and this work influenced the work of utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham (Fieser). Therefore, a review of this theory is necessary because of its significant influence on philosophy.
The eighteenth century’s moral theories were based on the fact that people are guided by rational judgments in assessing the morality or immorality of actions. However, according to Hume, moral approval is an emotional response. Hume identifies three psychological players, such as the moral agent, the receiver, and the moral spectator, to substantiate his theory (Fieser). A moral agent is a person who performs an action that influences the recipient, and the spectator observes them and gives moral approval (Fieser). For example, a moral agent steals a recipient’s property, which triggers an emotional reaction of anger, sadness, or despair. The moral spectator expresses sympathy for the recipient and gives moral disapproval to the agent. Thus, all interactions and assessments of the action are based on the emotional reactions of the participants. At the same time, a person can simultaneously perform in several roles, since he or she can act and emotionally react to it, for example, feel joy for a hungry person to whom he offered food (Fieser). The observer is also not required to witness the act but can react to the story or hypothetical situation.
Moreover, human actions, according to Hume, are motivated by character traits. Hume divides traits into virtuous and vicious, as well as instinctive, such as benevolence, mercy, and generosity, and acquired, such as fairness, allegiance, and chastity (Fieser). In addition, Hume also classifies virtuous qualities as useful to others, such as charity, and useful to oneself, such as persistence. Other categories include qualities immediately agreeable to others, such as eloquence, and agreeable to oneself, such as pride (Fieser). The most useful traits fall into several categories at once, and from a moral point of view, the most useful qualities are those that bring the most useful consequences for the recipient or utility. This “utility” is one of the key elements of the theory since it characterizes the virtue of morality.
Hume’s views on religion and God’s existence also had a significant influence on philosophy, since he criticized most of the principles of the Catholic Church. First, in The Natural History of Religion, Hume explains the emergence of religion from the perspective of psychology and human nature, contrasting his arguments with the idea of the divine origin of the first monotheistic religions. He demonstrates that such instincts as fear and a tendency to flattery, together with the evolution of social relations, have become the cause of the development of a religion that can control people’s behavior (Lorkowski). Moreover, Hume compares polytheistic and monotheistic religions and demonstrates a significant amount of absurdity in both forms that contradict logical evidence. In the same way, Hume argues that miracles are necessary for converting people to religion since they replace logical arguments in its favor (Lorkowski). Moreover, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, which were published after the philosopher’s death, Hume gives design and causal arguments for the existence of God and challenges them using three characters with different points of view (Lorkowski). Since religion played a crucial role in the eighteenth century, Hume’s philosophy received much criticism. However, in the long term, it was of great importance in the debate about the existence and significance of religion and God in society’s life.
As noted above, Hume presented many ideas that were reflected in the development of philosophy. One of Hume’s fundamental concepts was a denial of the existence of “self” as a simple individual impression since personal identity is a combination of experience and perceptions of the surrounding world (Smith). A person cannot separate themselves from the physical world and the society in which they exist. Hume also denied the concept of free will, since any choice is a consequence of motives and necessities associated with life experience (Fieser). In other words, freedom of choice can be expressed only as a choice of greater necessity. Hume also substantiates the concepts of time, space, perception of external objects, and the nature of ideas and emotions by skeptically analyzing other philosophers’ views, and proposing new theories based on logic and facts. Thus, Hume made a significant contribution to philosophy by analyzing philosophical concepts and presenting a new perspective on them that impacted many of his followers’ works.
Therefore, a brief overview demonstrates that Hume had a significant influence on the development of philosophical thought. The author’s skeptical analysis and logical arguments allowed him to present a new look at classical philosophical concepts. In addition, this scientific, rational, empirical analysis and argument approach has features that are inherent in contemporary scientific thought; thus, Hume’s theories and concepts are applicable and influential in modern philosophy.
Works Cited
Fieser, James. ” David Hume (1711—1776). “ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A Peer-Viewed Academic Resource.
Lorkowski, C.M. “David Hume: Religion.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A Peer-Viewed Academic Resource.
Rasmussen, Dennis. The Infidel and the Professor: David Hume, Adam Smith, and the Friendship That Shaped Modern Thought. Princeton University Press, 2019.
Smith, Joel. “Self-Consciousness.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017. Web.