Introduction
The era of European colonialism shaped the world that acquired the features of the modern world order. European countries (mainly Britain, Spain, France, and Holland) tried to colonize as vast territories as possible, extracting all possible benefits from their new possessions. North and South America were no longer the lands of ancient civilizations of Aztecs and other indigenous people. The continent became a matter of conquest and struggle between major empires. Geographic peculiarities of the lands, cultural specifics of locals, as well as the social and cultural peculiarities of colonists, affected the further development of colonies. It is noteworthy that English (which had rather much in common with French and Dutch colonies) and Spanish colonies differed considerably in various aspects. This paper includes a brief analysis of the social, economic, and cultural aspects of life in American colonial society.
Pre-Colonial Times
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the indigenous American population was quite numerous and heterogeneous. Some of the local peoples had strong civilizations, such as the Aztecs, while others had quite primitive lifestyles compared to other American societies or Europeans. American population in pre-colonial times fluctuated mainly due to natural factors and people’s reactions to the changes that took place recurrently (Céspedes 50). For instance, during times of favorable environmental conditions, people had sufficient resources to develop communities, build cities and create city-states, as well as establish trade with their neighbors.
American societies were predominantly agricultural, so their dependence on climatic factors was almost complete. Therefore, when droughts or other natural disasters occurred or when overpopulation issues intensified, the population decreased dramatically and rapidly. Those were the times of famine, illnesses, wars, inhumane religious practices, and other atrocities. Different challenges associated with the arrival of Europeans led to the almost complete disappearance of local peoples and the assimilation of the rest of the indigenous peoples with colonists.
Early Colonial Times and the Aztecs
The rise and fall of the Aztec civilization can be seen as one of the examples of the life cycle of a pre-colonial American community. The Aztecs lived in the territories of Central Mexico between the 14 and 16th centuries (History). This was a mighty empire that created city-states and extended its power to a large region through trade, alliances and wars, and reached its highest potency in the 16th century. The byproduct of economic prosperity is overpopulation and degradation of available resources, which led to diverse economic issues and social and political turbulence. The arrival of Europeans was the major challenge the Aztec society was unable to address. During the early days of the interactions between colonists and the Aztecs, both sides tried to collaborate effectively. For instance, Europeans brought technology, and local people provided resources (food, metals, and other valuables).
Isabel Moctezuma could be a good illustration of such attempts. Isabel was an Aztec princess who married Spaniards and was regarded by Fernando Cortes and later many other people as a symbol of the synergy between local peoples and Europeans (Chipman 215). She had a considerable estate in the colony (including the city that later became Mexico) and was a devout Catholic, which had an effect on the development of the nobility in colonial society. She could be seen as an illustration of early attempts to develop proper relationships with locals and create a strong community where people of different descent collaborate effectively.
However, Europeans’ desire to expand their territories, their attitudes towards locals who were seen as uncivilized savages subjected to being civilized, and the extraction of as many resources as possible made this cooperation impossible. Notably, the co-habitation of the representatives of the two worlds was challenged. Europeans brought diseases that led to the devastation of many lands as local peoples did not have the immunity to survive.
Native Peoples’ Role
As mentioned above, Europeans saw locals as savages who were to be civilized, but they were still willing or often forced to cooperate with indigenous communities. Slavery was common in the Americas, and Native peoples often provided slaves (soldiers or captives) to colonists (Chipman 218). When the fierce struggle between the two worlds started, Europeans started enslaving locals. At that, the cooperation between different communities never ended, and many local people collaborated effectively with new settlers.
It was also common, especially during the early years, to create families or enter romantic relationships out of wedlock with local women as European males outnumbered female colonists several times (Céspedes 55). Mulatos and mestizos were specifically numerous in Spanish colonies, while the practice of creating interracial families was less widespread in English, Dutch, or French colonies, although it was also quite commonplace. The example of Isabel Moctezuma shows that Iberians (Spanish and Portuguese conquerors) saw such marriages with local women as a way of legitimization the power of the Crown in the new lands (Céspedes 55). The elite in those territories was of Iberian and mixed descent, while in North America, Europeans tended to occupy higher posts in their communities.
Differences Among Colonies
Similar to the differences among pre-Colombian American societies, colonies differed in many ways due to geographic peculiarities and cultural aspects of Europeans. For instance, in North America, three distinct areas could be considered, northern, middle, and southern territories. Since northern territories were less appropriate for agriculture due to low temperatures, fur trade and different trades were developing (Woodard 35). People tried to advance technologies and build big cities with potent and diverse industries. People of all nationalities and religions were welcome as such differences were tolerated, and equality and liberty were valued. Lachlan McGillivray can be seen as a conventional example of a colonizer who came to the New World and became successful. After several years of his life on southern frontiers, Lachlan McGillivray learned the language of indigenous people, which made him an expert in developing ties between locals and immigrants (Cashin 21). He became a fur trader and landowner with a considerable political influence, and he contributed considerably to the creation of a new colonial society.
In middle areas, the moderate climate made agriculture a significant segment of the economy. People with traditional values practicing Christianity tended to settle there. The number of slaves in that part of the continent was not significant compared to southern areas and South America. Southern territories of North America relied on agriculture and slave labor, and religiosity and traditional values were reigning in that area.
As far as South and Central America are concerned, Iberians relied on slave labor and agriculture as the basis of their economic order. Large territories and a warm climate could sustain different types of agricultural practices. People produced cotton and tobacco and exported these materials to Europe, which was the ground for their well-being (Woodard 91). The extraction of natural resources (for instance, silver) was another type of export to European cities. In contrast, colonists in North America were more concerned with developing self-sustained local communities.
One of the most significant differences between the colonies of Iberians and other European countries was related to religious beliefs. In South and Central America, colonists paid much attention to Catholicism and hardly tolerated any other religious practices. In North America, Protestant values were the guiding ideology and the premise for further expansion in the New World. It is noteworthy that in northern areas, people were more tolerant as to religious beliefs, while people in southern territories paid much attention to the dominance of Christian values.
Social Life in Communities and Cities
Irrespective of the cultural differences of colonists life in urban and rural areas was largely similar in the New World. Industrious people who wanted more liberty and opportunities tried to settle in urban areas. In big cities, people relied on trade and industries that were already starting to evolve rapidly (Céspedes 63). Urban dwellers tried to create their communities based on the governance principles in their home countries. Elites (those who managed to succeed economically and people assigned by European rulers) created the institutions that maintained order and established (as well as guaranteed) proper relations with indigenous peoples.
Military people were often responsible for the establishment of new settlements and managing them during the initial stages of their development. Hundreds and thousands of military personnel ensured order in the communities and people’s safety. For instance, Pierre Pouchot was one of the French military men who came to the New World to defend New France from the English and other colonists (Dunnigan 198). He excelled in engineering and cartography, contributing to the development of local communities. His remarkable input in the evolution of colonies is rooted in his attention to cultural aspects and his understanding and respect for local peoples.
The Church (be it Catholic or Protestant) had a strong power in the New World. Priests came to baptize savages, bringing them to the true God as they believed and proclaimed. Simultaneously, the church received resources and spread its influence as well. An interesting example of a life of a priest is not uncommon but stands out against the major pool of the experiences of the clergy. Antonio de Gouveia was a Portuguese priest who, due to his controversial behaviors, was captured and sentenced to imprisonment by inquisitors for practicing medicine in Portugal. After the imprisonment, he was again sentenced to capital punishment, which was replaced (as common practice) with an expel to the New World, where he could live as a free man (Da Silveira Cardozo 157). However, he still practiced medicine, abused indigenous people, and did not try to develop proper relationships with the local elite, which led to another imprisonment and his return to Portugal.
The Social Life in Rural Areas
Rural areas were characterized by a more apparent influence of the Church. Elites also appeared, but those were usually rich landowners who had almost complete power over people living in their territories. Rural communities with a population of free people who were engaged in different agricultural practices were mainly governed by assigned persons and chosen representatives of the community (Céspedes 72). Richer people formed elites and affected the ways communities evolved.
As mentioned above, southern areas were characterized by a greater reliance on slave labor. Initially, indigenous people were the largest group of slaves, but soon Africans became the predominant racial group working as slaves in the Americas (Céspedes 73). Families were specifically important social units in rural areas (Céspedes 56). This principle was most prominent in Iberians’ colonies due to the cultural peculiarities of these people. Although colonists of different descent established patriarchal societies in the Americas, this paradigm was more refined in rural areas. Females had no power out of their households and made no decisions in the community. Nevertheless, women were totally responsible for managing households and rearing (which included educating) children.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is possible to note that colonies controlled by different European countries had many features in common, but differed in many ways as well. A combination of geographic and cultural features shaped the way colonies evolved. Indigenous peoples’ population reduced dramatically, and these groups started playing an insignificant role in the development of the colonies, although they often tried to influence major decisions. In some cases, local peoples succeeded in the protection of their rights, but in most cases, they were marginalized and assimilated. During the 16-17th centuries, agriculture, fur trade, and resource export were the basis of the economy of the colonies. In southern territories, slave labor became common, and the population of slaves brought from Africa started increasing rapidly. Numerous conflicts between different groups broke out recurrently, and many of these conflicts led to the reshaping of social and economic practices.
Works Cited
Cashin, Edward J. “Lachlan McGillivray: Indian Trader on the Southern Colonial Frontier.” The Human Tradition in the American Revolution, edited by Nancy L. Rhoden et al., Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2000, pp. 19-37.
Céspedes, Guillermo. Latin America: The Early Years. Random House Inc., 1974.
Chipman, Donald. “Isabel Moctezuma: Pioneer of Mestizaje.” Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, edited by David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, University of California Press, 1981, pp. 214-227.
Da Silveira Cardozo, Manoel. “Antonio de Gouveia: Adventurer and Priest.” Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, edited by David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, University of California Press, 1981, pp. 142-164.
Dunnigan, Brian L. “Pierre Pouchot: A French Soldier Views America.” The Human Tradition in the American Revolution, edited by Nancy L. Rhoden et al., Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2000, pp. 197-216.
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Woodard, Colin. American Nations: A History of the Eleven Rival Regional Cultures of North America. Penguin Books, 2012.