Introduction
The history of Mexican independence is a complex and long-lasting conflict that involved several nations and many years. Being inspired by the recent American achievements during the previous century, Criollos and Mestizos demonstrated their desire to change the current situation in the country and prove their rights and freedoms. Three countries were involved in developing Mexican movements and understanding sovereignty during the 1800s: Spain, the United States, and France. The Mexican War of Independence against Spanish royalists and gachupines with legal and social benefits was at the beginning of the 19th century. The Mexica-American War defined the annexation of Texas and revealed the threats of the US invasion. Finally, the conflict with France resulted in the Second French Intervention and the establishment of a new regime. All these events affected Mexicans and their need to establish a national identity quickly to resist the power of invaders relying on their Criollo and Mestizo forces.
Mexican War for Independence Led by Criollos and Mestizos
The Criollo population was of Spanish descent, and its representatives were born in colonies, with no self-governing experience and effective leadership. In the 1810s, several castes had access to weapons but no understanding of national identity and ideologies. Criollos were interested in removing the Spanish regime and establishing economic and political powers. On September 16, 1810, a Catholic priest in the village of Dolores, Miguel Hidalgo, initiated a revolt and inspired thousands of local citizens to resist native Spaniards and stop Mexican exploitation. There were no sex, race, or class biases, which allowed Hidalgo to gather an army of more than 100,000 soldiers and equip them with stones, sticks, and other handmade resources. Compared to Criollos, who wanted to change the leadership and rebel, Mestizos had more specific purposes, including the separation between church and state and the nationalization of the land. After Hidalgo’s execution, José María Morelos Pérez y Pavón led the movement, recognizing the importance of racial differences and military discipline. He was the author of the Sentiments of the Nation to define the future of Mexico, which provoked the necessity of taking new official steps for independence.
The Chicano Movement and National Identify in the mid-1800s
Although the Chicano Movement emerged in the mid-1900s, certain events a century before played a crucial role in its establishment. The main ideas of the movement were to restore the land, provide farmworkers with rights, and implement education reforms. The point is that Criollos and Mestizos lacked a clear national identity with the help of which it was possible to unify people and develop various beliefs and social standards. The Chicano movement proved that most citizens suffered from the inability of the country to succeed in national politics. People needed justice in various directions, and the inability to achieve such goals provoked new concerns and needs. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in the middle of the 1800s to end the war between Mexico and the United States. The supporters of the Chicano movement did not want to follow that decision and expected to offer the southwestern part of the United States to Mexican Americans. Addressing that territory as a part of the Mexican ancestral homeland, new citizens had to prove their national freedoms and identities that were neglected during the mid-1800s to prove their cultural traits and possibilities.
US Invasion in the 1840s and French Invasion in the 1860s
The annexation of Texas was one of the main reasons for the Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848. The current US President, James K. Polk, aimed at expanding the American territory, and it was a critical battle for land for Mexicans. The relationships between the two nations were tense, and the American diplomat, John Slidell, was sent to Mexico to discuss the possible boundary adjustments between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande River, but he failed. The first American troops entered the Mexican land when Polk proved a threat of invasion and the inability to keep the peace. The war was declared on May 11, 1846. In one year, Mexico City failed together with the Mexican army, and the decision to initiate negotiations began. On February 2, 1848, the war was ended by signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It helped the United States get more land from Mexico (present-day California, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming).
In the 1860s, Napoleon III invaded Mexico because of the necessity to solve the question of foreign debt. However, the true reasons were poorly explained, including the leaders’ ambitions, the outcomes of the American Civil War, and the possibility to shift European powers in North America. Mexico’s natural resources were interesting for Europe, and it was also important not to give the United States a chance to strengthen its impact. The Mexican government fled, and French troops took advantage of the citizens, who had nothing to do but rely on their religious beliefs and poor political awareness and accepted Maximillian as the Emperor. The situation was changed when Benito Juarez began his campaigns to change the relationships between the country and its foreign creditors and removed the French troops from the Mexican land.
Conclusion
In general, the number of rebellions and military conflicts in Mexico grew significantly during the 19th century. The country had to prove its independence several times, regularly facing Spanish, French, and American powers. People got a chance to recognize their needs and fight for their freedoms, discovering their internal and external powers and effective leadership. New international relationships, friends, and enemies were revealed during the European and American invasions.