Introduction
Fascism is a political system that became prominent in Europe in the 20th century. In the left-right political spectrum, fascism is mainly categorized as a far-right ideology. However, this definition has a problem because the most uniting factor of the right is free markets and limited government. Fascism is also vehemently opposed to socialism and communism. While fascism and communism have some intersection in that they both value a strong state, fascism also believes in cultural and racial exceptionalism. This is antithetical to socialism, which possesses such tenets as equity and elevation of the weak.
For these reasons, fascism can be argued as having aspects of both sides of the political spectrum. Fascism began in Italy but quickly spread to Europe and other countries. There is a consensus that Mussolini was the founder of fascism; for this reason, his notion of fascism is the foundational definition. Mussolini’s idea of fascism involved a cult leader, a strong state, using force to achieve objectives, anti-democracy, and the manifest destiny of expanding empire.
The Leader
A key identifier of fascism is the presence of a cult leader who promises to restore the national pride of a group and transform it into an empire. Such personalities exist in all iterations of fascism: in the Italian version under Mussolini or the Nazi version under Hitler. There is a significant intersection between fascism and populism. While the Blackshirts and brownshirts movements in Italy and Germany were a formidable force in and of themselves, they needed charismatic personalities to lead them. Another similarity between populists and fascists is they tend to arise during times of crisis. In Italy, Mussolini became popular after the end of WWII at a time when Italy needed rejuvenation. Another similarity is the mobilization of the masses and a direct identificatory relationship between the group and the populist.
Mussolini
One of the most interesting facts about Mussolini’s Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria is that it split from the socialist party. It is surprising because fascists later became famous for their anti-socialist policies. However, one could argue that socialism could have been a source of inspiration for elevating the state’s role in fascism. Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria was founded as a call to arms as Italy entered the First World War (Stone, 2013). The movement would achieve its primary mission as Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. The Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria, later rebranded as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento illustrates Mussolini’s ultra-nationalist views and the need to establish Italian hegemony through violence and war.
Mussolini’s version of fascism was that the state was a necessary component of propagating critical elements of the ideology. At the core of fascism was the idea of Italian exceptionalism. It is recorded that Mussolini supported Italy’s entry into WWI to free Italian people in regions such as South Tyrol (Ball et al., 2020). This was essentially Italian irredentism that sought to claim territories that had a majority of Italians. It is also reported that Mussolini received support from arm manufacturing farms which would have benefitted from the war, illustrating that he had no issue with private corporations engaging in empire-building.
The essence of fascism is to be selective on either side of the political spectrum. From socialism, fascism adopts the ideas of revolution, big state, and populism. From nationalism, fascism adopts a more extreme stance making it about cultural or racial supremacy. Mussolini’s ideas were not fully formed by the time Italy was getting into the war but the ideas developed over time. Despite Nazis having received inspiration from Italy on fascism, Mussolini and Hitler did not get along until later, likely because Italians were not part of Hitler’s idea of Aryans. From classical free-market economics, fascism supports private enterprise so long as they are used to serve the state (Stone, 1998). One could argue that fascism is okay with many aspects from either side of the spectrum so long as members of the supposed supreme group achieve them.
Force was a Necessary Component of the State
An emergent pattern throughout Mussolini’s ideas is that force is necessary to achieve their objectives. From the early establishment of Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria, whose purpose was to promote entry into WWI, to the change of name to the more direct Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, violence is a core element of fascism (Stone, 2013). The Black Shirts, the paramilitary arm of Italian fascism, had no qualms about using force and violence to achieve their objectives. This culminated in the 1922 march to Rome, where Mussolini and his supporters forced the King to appoint him as the prime minister (Ball et al., 2020). Another indicator of their affinity for force was the aversion to weakness, where members of society perceived as weak were weeded out.
Anti-democracy and pro-Authoritarianism
It is no secret that fascists were not enthusiasts of democracy. In the early stages, Mussolini does not seem to have a well-planned strategy, but his ideas do build over time when he gives emotional speeches that Italy needs a dictator to rejuvenate itself from the ruins of WWI. The ‘Blackshirts’ became emboldened over time, throwing socialists and communists out of government. The formation of the National Fascist Party in 1921 indicates the concretization of Mussolini’s ideas. In October 1922, Mussolini declared that if power was not handed over to them, they would seize it (Ball et al., 2020). A few days later, he unleashes his supporters to Rome, leading to the government of the day resigning. King Victor had the duty to appoint a prime minister. It does not get more blatantly anti-democratic than demanding power be handed over. Mussolini’s flirtation with dictatorship culminated in forcing his way into power.
As with many authoritarians, it does not stop at acquiring power. Mussolini’s government continued its undemocratic ways with sham elections where voters were given an illusion of choice. For example, the election of 1924 was marred with fraud and intimidation, where the Fascist Party allied with a smaller party to win two-thirds of the vote (Ball et al., 2020). His adoption of the title II Duce – the Leader- is further evidence of his blatant anti-democratic views of Mussolini.
Moreover, Mussolini was a firm believer in the use of propaganda to deceive the masses. Therefore, he centralized propaganda efforts under the press office. In 1935, the fascist government formed a propaganda ministry to tell the ‘truth’ about fascism and counter the enemies ‘lies’ (Ball et al., 2020). The authoritarian ways did not stop at controlling the press but also education; he appointed Giovanni Gentile as the minister of education; Gentile revamped the education system in the country to indoctrinate children on fascism.
Empire
Mussolini believed the state had a role to play in expanding the empire. Even from the early days when the Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria was formed, it aimed to spread pro-war sentiments so that Italy could join the war. Italian irredentism had the sole purpose of claiming territory and was a disguised way of spreading empire. Mussolini ultimately had the ambition of recreating the Roman Empire. Even the later alliance with Nazis was because both fascist variants had ambitions of expanding territory. Mussolini attacked many territories, such as Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Albania. Mussolini saw Albania as a footing for the eventual conquest of the Balkans and would eventually attack Greece. It was these overambitious attacks that ultimately led to his downfall.
Conclusion
Fascism is a political ideology that became popular in the early 20th century. Even though the term is etymologically older, Benito Mussolini popularized the movement that spread beyond borders to other parts of the world, especially Germany. Mussolini formed the Fascio d’Azione Rivoluzionaria in 1914 to encourage Italy to join the war. The movement rebranded to the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento Fascism illustrating their pivot to more extremism.
At the core, fascism is all about strength; fascists essentially want a strong dictator that can lead a country to further its ultra-nationalist ideology. Fascism adopts the socialist idea of a strong state and the free-market idea of supporting corporations. Mussolini was the face of fascism, and his notion of a state is synonymous with the general idea of a fascist state. This fascist state is led by a dictator, allows a certain degree of private enterprise, is totalitarian, and seeks expansion of the empire to spread the superior culture beyond the borders.
References
Ball, T., Dagger, R., & O’Neill, D. L. (Eds.). (2020). Ideals and ideologies: A reader (Eleventh Edition). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Stone, M. (1998). The patron state: Culture & politics in fascist Italy. Princeton University Press.
Stone, M. (2013). The fascist revolution in Italy: A brief history with documents. Bedford/St. Martins.