Introduction
The main aim of this paper is to address the rare subject that entails the inclusion of the Oman culture in English literature. Oman is one of the most conducive places to visit in the United Arab Emirates. The region has a rich history, culture and background. In addition, it has a beautiful environment comprising of spectacular natural and anthropogenic features. The natives of the region have embraced and maintained their culture for many generations now.
Despite the rich background, culture and history that the region has, it is rarely mentioned in Arabic literature. The region, an isolated peninsula in the Arabian Gulf, did not get any significant representation in Arabic literature. Ironically, Oman has been highly represented in English literature. This includes books, novels, poems, and travel writing. Many English writers have used the various elements of the Omani culture to pass a message to their audience. This paper will thus focus on the representation of the Oman culture in English literature. It will focus on the various dimensions that the culture has been used in English literature. To achieve this, it will critically analyze novels, poems and writings of Oman and Omani culture by English artists, authors and composers. In addition, the essay shall focus on the attention that was given to Sayyid Said, the Sultan of Oman during the early 19th century. he was an individual who had desirable characters and was loved and respected by many individual. This included the natives of Oman and the individuals who visited the region.
A focus on famous Omani towns
To clearly understand how the Omani culture has been represented in English literature, a focus on the use of words shall be conducted. Oman towns and cities such as, Muscat, Hormuz, Dhofar, Musandam, and Qalhat, are clearly present in English poetry. These towns were mainly used in the poems that were written between the 16th to 20th century. The city of Hormuz, for example, enjoyed the lion’s share of this representation. It was used as a symbol of the excessive oriental wealth. It managed to inflame the imagination and creativity of great poets such as Thomas Moore, John Milton and Percy Shelley. Many English references have quoted this famous phrase of Hormuz, “If the world were a ring, Hormuz would be its jewel” (Marsden 63). An example of this representation was in the work of a famous Italian traveller called Marko Polo. He visited Hormuz during the 13th century. The main aim of his expedition to the region was assertion of the prosperity that the city had. In his writing, it is evident that he observed a city that was vibrant with the activity of exchange of goods and services.
At the time that he visited the city, he observed the presence of traders from all the corners of the world. This included traders from India, China, horn of Africa, Europe and the natives. The items of trade that he observed were spices, drugs, diamond, gold, elephant tusks, pearls and a variety of merchandized articles (Marsden 81). The sale of these services had developed into a commercial activity. The city of Hormuz in itself was like a trading centre. During those days, it was renowned to many due to its trading activities. It is as a result of these facts that it managed to get recognition in English literature.
From the observations of Polo, it was evident that many European travelers and writers were fascinated by the gulf of Oman and the activities that were taking place there. From his description, we can clearly see that he and many other Europeans who visited the region were astonished by the wealth of Ormuz. Due to the respect that these individuals had for the region, they went ahead and named one of the most expensive and precious type of silk, Armozeen, after the region (Marsden 115). It may also be due to the same reason that many European countries gave the name Ormuz to some of the streets that are found in major towns and cities. In addition, some maritime companies named their vessels after the region especially during the 19th and 20th century (Marsden 218).
From the works of John Milton (1608-1674), the prosperity of Hormuz is also mention. This is in the book, Paradise Lost. In the book, John mentions the following:
- High on a Throne of Royal State, which far
- Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of India,
- Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
- Showers on her Kings Barbaric Pearl and Gold,
- Satan exalted sat, by merit rais’d
- To that bad eminence; and from despair
- Thus high uplifted beyond hope, aspires
- Beyond thus high, insatiate to pursue
- Vain War with Heav’n, and by success untaught
- His proud imaginations thus displain (Milton 28).
Another poet, William Sotheby, also mentions the wealth and prosperity of Hormuz. Sotheby, a poet from the romantic period, mentions the wealth of Ormuz in the poem titled, The Battle of the Nile, which state that:
To braid me, Ormuz! scoop thy pearly bed:
Schiraz! to cool my lip, thy vintage shed. (Sotheby 1).
It should however be noted that the picture of wealth in Oman is not only limited to Hormuz. The imagination and creativity of English poets was also not limited to the wealth and prosperity that Oman was experiencing. It also focused on the pearls, corals and myrrh that were found in Oman. Perhaps the famous English romantic poet, Percy Shelley, in his long epic, The Revolt of Islam, was the first poet who drew attention to the corals of Oman Sea. In this poem, Shelley states that the King used to fascinate himself with the pearls and corals of the Oman Sea when he was bored or exhausted. To find excitement, he would order his servants to bring him a present that would make him happy. On this very occasions, two slaves brought a present to the king. The first slave presented an instrument to the king. This present did not really fascinate the king. Due to this fact, the other slave became worried, wondering if the king would accept his present. He then doubtfully gave the king his present, a piece of coral from the Oman Sea. The king was fascinated with the present and truly appreciated this. From this poem, it will therefore be true to say that even the natives themselves were fascinated with some of the artifacts that they had in their land.
Thomas Moore also focused on the corals that were found on the Oman Sea. In his famous poem, The Fire Worshippers, he talks about the beautiful and romantic sight of the Oman Sea, off the banks of the shore, once it has been hit by the brightness of the moon. He says:
This moonlight over Oman’s Sea ;
Her banks of pearl and palmy isles
Bask in the night-beam beauteously,
And her blue waters sleep in smiles. (Moore 204)
In this poem, Moore praises the beautiful scenario that is visible once the Oman Sea has been hit by the moonlight. From his description, one paints a beautiful picture of the ocean at night. To make the picture to be more exciting, more talks about the pearls and corals that are present in the sea. This makes the reader of the poem to have a glimpse of the beauty of the ocean and its worth. This makes Oman to have a strong cultural heritage, something that many English poets and writers such as Moore recognized.
In English literature, the pearls of the Oman Sea have been described by using the metaphor, as white as milk. This description has found a lot of application in the world of poetry and writing, especially during the romantic period. This has mainly been mainly used by poets to describe the various features of their lovers. Madison Julius, for example, used the metaphor in one of his poems to describe the teeth of his lover. This description was in reference with the peals that were found on the Omani Sea.
In one of his poems, Julius describes how the sea was essential for the transportation of people and goods. In addition, he uses the metaphor, as white as milk, to describe the color of the pearls that people saw during their voyage. This was a spectacular feature that attracted the eye of many.
In one of his other poems, Oriental Romance, he links the breasts of his lover’s breast to the pearls of Oman. In t his poem, Julius imagines himself to be the king of Oman who is in love with a beautiful lady. To go and marry her, he had to travel several days and nights at sea. Among the things that he had on board were the presents for his lady. This include fabrics of the highest quality, gem stones and products that were made out of gold. According to him, his lady deserves all this because she is beautiful. Her breasts for instance are of the right shape (round) and are as white as the pearls of the Oman Sea (Cawein 318).
Yet in another of his poem, A Cameo, Madison compares his lover’s teeth to the white pearls of Oman. This meant that they were white and strong, making her to look beautiful with a bright smile. In the poem, he states that:
…I know a purer nacre,—
The white pearls of her teeth. (Cawein 149)
Similarly, we find an American poet, James Gates Percival, describing the face of his lover with the whiteness of Oman’s pearls and corals. In his poem, Flower of a Southern Garden, Percival uses symbolism to describe the beauty of his lover. He states that his lover is more precious than a fairing lily that has just blossomed, more precious than gems, diamonds and gold and she glows brighter than all the corals and pearls of the Oman Sea (Percival 77).
Dhofar was also another region in the Oman peninsula. Like Hormuz, it also gained a lot of recognition in English literature. Through their creativity and imagination, many poets from the western civilization used the image of the Dhofari frankincense in their poems, novels and other forms of writing. The Dhofari frankincense was so important in the Omani culture as it nourished the souls of many gods. Many Egyptian, Indian and other Asian temples were dependent on the Dhofari frankincense. Luís de Camões (1524-1580), a Portuguese poet in his famous epic, The Lusiad, said:
The three Arabias here their breasts unfold,
Here breathing incense, here a rocky wold;
O’er Dofar’s plain the richest incense breathes,
That round the sacred shrine its vapour wreathes. (Mickle 453).
In English literature, the picture of Dhofar has been linked to Iram, Ubar, and Ophir. These occurrences appear as they have been mentioned in the Bible. The travelers and archeologist of the medieval times believed Ubar to be Iram. This is the lost wealthy city that has been described in the Koran. In this holly book, Iram has been described as the city that was adorned with pillars. Like Sodom and Gomorrah, Iram is believed to have been destroyed by the Lord due to the sins of its natives.
Ubar is legendarily believed to be buried beneath the sands of Southern Arabia. Explorers such as Bertram Thomas, Wilfred Thesiger and Wendell Phillips believe that the lost city might be found in Southern Oman. In 1991, an American filmmaker, Nicholas Clapp, organized two expeditions to Oman with a team. This team comprised of archaeologists, geologists, space scientists and some adventurers. They examined towers at Shisur, a town located to the north of Dhofar. They found evidence that supported the existence of the settlement in 400 B. C. Their further excavations revealed that Ubar was located at Shisur.
An American poet, Bayard Taylor, visited many countries in the East. From his expedition, he provides a good example of the Western fascination of Iram. In his poem, The Garden of Irem, he uses a number of writing styles to describe his journey to the unknown land of Irem. He wishes to know the path that leads to this lost land so that he can have the first hand experience its beauty and pleasure. In the poem, he describe this lost land using characteristics of Oman. This includes the availability of precious artifacts such as gold, diamond, gems and pearls. Like in many Arabian myths, he expects to find all these valuables stored in hidden treasure boxes from ancient times. to reach there, he expects to cross vast seas and oceans (the Oman Sea). Once he has found the lost land, he hope to experience favorable climatic conditions. According to him, there should be a beautiful sun that glows in the sky, lighting up the land. There also should be a breath taking wind that blows swiftly over the land. Once he has discovered this land, he would be one of the happiest men in the world (Taylor 68).
From the various examples that have been discussed, it is evident that various elements of Oman have been represented in the English literature. This includes town, wealth, the sea and the culture of the natives.
Representation of Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and his Purebred Arabian Horses in English Literature
An Omani emperor, Sayyid Said bin Sultan (1791-1856) enjoyed a charismatic image in English literature. His image has been presented in English literature in form of poetry and prose. He was the Sultan of Oman from 1804 to 1856. In the eyes of the many Europeans who were familiar with him, Sayyid was not just an emperor from the east but also a Noble Knight. The poets and authors from the west praised his, nobility, handsomeness, courage, justice, tolerance, generosity and humility. These qualities are rarely attributed to leaders from the Middle East. This therefore states that Sayyid was a fair man who was not just loved and respected by his subjects but also by many people and societies all around the world.
An Italian traveler, Vincenzo Maurizi, who was also known as the Sultan’s personal physician, described him with these words, “Seyd Said is a good looking young man, of moderate stature and florid complexion; his manners are lively and agreeable” (Vincenzo 18). In 1816, a British explorer, William Heude, stated that the sultan was a middle-aged individual with a lot of charm and charisma. He was well behaved, had a desirable appearance and most of all, he had respect to any one, irrespective of age, sex or background.
In 1821, a Scottish novelist and traveler, James Baillie Fraser depicted him as follows, “The countenance of the Imaum is of a mild and pleasing expression. He assumed a gravity of deportment, which did not seem altogether habitual, and was far from bordering on austerity” (Fraser 20). Perhaps the most important qualities of nobility and civilization bestowed by Europeans lavishly upon Sayyid Said bin Sultan are reflected in the description of an English traveler, Robert Mignan, who visited him in 1825. Mignan described the Sultan as a gentleman who had respect for humanity. He had love for all his people. This includes men, women and children. He did not favor an individual of a given sex more than the other. Other that having respect for his people and his culture, he also was a man of religion. He followed the Islamic teachings to the latter. This, however, did not make him discriminate people who were believers of other religions. As a matter of fact, from the literature that is present, it is evident that the Sultan did indeed appreciate visitors from other communities and civilization. A good example is the warm welcoming that he had for visitors from Europe and America. Finally, Sayyid Said was a man of justice. He presided over cases with a lot of wisdom and care. This ensured that all his subjects received justice and a fair trial. These qualities were contrary to those of many other leaders from the Middle East and Asia at that time. Due to this fact, writers such as Mignan referred to him as a lion in the east (Mignan 235).
In 1831, Joachim Heyward Stocqueler, an English Jewish traveler, visited Muscat, and was officially received and hospitalized by Sayyid Said in his palace. Stocqueler describes the Sultan as a middle aged man who was a warrior. This is due to the fact that he would go at any lengths to protect his subjects. In addition, the traveler stated that the Sultan was a charismatic person. Most of the people who knew him liked him a lot. This can be supported by the fact that many writers have had a positive description for the leader. Due to this fact, his subjects and the visitors of Oman had a high esteem for the leader (Stocqueler 5)
Sayyid Said’s was tolerant to individuals of other religions. He also encouraged open trade to all people regardless of their nationalities, color or religions. This qualities asserted many European and non-Europeans travellers who visited him in Muscat or Zanzibar. It is confirmed, for example, by an American businessman and diplomat, Edmund Roberts, who visited Sayyid Said in 1833. He was on a diplomatic mission to negotiate about trade agreements with him. Roberts hails the religious tolerance of the Sultan, “All religions, within the Sultan’s dominions, are not merely tolerated, but they are protected by his highness; and there is no obstacle whatever to prevent the Christian, the Jew, or the Gentile, from preaching their peculiar doctrines, or erecting temples” (Roberts 358). James Wellsted was among the Europeans who knew Sayyid Said and experienced his nobility, generosity and justice. James received special attention from the Sultan and his subjects. He was even named Aumar II. He visited to Muscat in 1835, and travelled extensively in Oman under the Sultan’s protection and generosity. From his experience, Wellsted describes the characteristics of the regime of Sayyid Said as remarkable. This was due to the high level of hospitality that he received while he was in Oman. Normally, countries of the Middle east are associated with dictator leadership. At the same time, the leaders of such countries are not fond of visitors, especially from Europe and America. To his surprise, James received a warm welcoming when he arrived at Muscat. The Sultan himself arranged for his accommodation and gave out his best men to accompany him for the rest of his journey. While at Muscat, the Sultan gave him a personal tour of the city. According to James, this was a remarkable experience. As a result therefore, he developed a lot of love and respect for the leader (Wellsted 7). This was the same to other travelers who visited the region. Due to his charisma and nobility, Sayyid Said received was mentioned a lot in English literature.
It is perhaps through his great leadership qualities that he managed to make Oman to be a stable region in the Arabian Peninsula. This may be attributed to several factors that have been presented in literature. First, people have praised the nobility of Said Sayyid. Many writers have referred to him as a noble man. Due to this fact, he developed strong diplomatic relations with other states. As a result, trade and other commercial activities were encouraged due to this nature of the relationship that Oman had with other states. In addition, the state welcomed individuals from different cultures and backgrounds. This included people who did not profess the Islamic religion. Furthermore, the safety of visitors was guaranteed while in the region. All this factors guaranteed and the internal and external stability of the state (Wellsted 7).
Sayyid Said has enjoyed this bright image in the eyes of Europeans even during the last days of his life. A traveler, who witnessed the Sultan’s nobility and generosity a year before his death was the French diplomat, Arthur Comte de Gobineau. He visited Muscat in 1855 (Billecocq 199). His description about the Sultan was relatively similar to that of other writers.
American poet praises Sayyid Said bin Sultan
A number of American poets also visited Oman. Fitch Taylor, for example, visited Oman between October 18-25th in 1838. During his journey, he visited Muscat and other cities in Oman. Taylor was a chaplain on board the American ship, Columbia, whose crew comprised of military men, politicians, merchants and writers. Their main aim was to strengthen relationship of U.S.A and countries of the East. Taylor allocated Chapter VII of his book, A Voyage Round the World to Muscat, in which he made a nice sketch of the city. He also praised the persona of Sayyid Said bin Sultan for the generosity that he granted upon him and the crew of the ship. He also talked about the religious beliefs of the Omanis and the virtue of tolerance that they attached to the other minorities in Muscat. This included Christians, Jews, and Banyans. He was also an admirer of the Bedouins, whom he visited in the outskirts of Muscat and enjoyed their hospitality. This includes men, women and children. He did not favor an individual of a given sex more than the other. Other that having respect for his people and his culture, he also was a man of religion. He followed the Islamic teachings to the latter. This, however, did not make him discriminate people who were believers of other religions. As a matter of fact, from the literature that is present, it is evident that the Sultan did indeed appreciate visitors from other communities and civilization. They eventually enjoyed his justice and nobility. He presided over cases with a lot of wisdom and care. This ensured that all his subjects received justice and a fair trial. These qualities were contrary to those of many other leaders from the Middle East and Asia at that time (Waterman 187).
Perhaps the most important statement in Taylor’s book is a rhymed poem that praises Sayyid Said bin Sultan. This poem was titled, Sultan of Muscat! Thy proud story. Apart from rhyming, the poem also praised the Sultan. It used words that could give him honor and rhyme at the same time. Some of the lines in the poem are presented below:
Lives where the day-beam latest falls,
Is heard within the Western halls ;
…And far o’er seas to Oman’s waters
And long their thousand sons and daughters
Not diamond gems from eastern mines,
Could win the hearts from western climes ;
But courteous deeds and princely dealing
Hath met a nation’s grateful feeling… (Waterman 321).
British poet laments Sayyid Said’s horse and other presents
Many European travelers, poets and authors were familiar with the love and affection that Sayyid Said had for horses. Many of these travelers have talked about the beautiful horses that the Sultan had and their stables. All of these have been presented in various poems and narratives. In addition, the Sultan also gave the Queen Victoria and other kings of England horses as a symbol of gratitude. It has happened that Sayyid Said sent an excellent black steed to King William IV. However, shortly after the death of the King, the Englishmen abused this gift by selling the horse in an auction in 1837 at Hampton Court. The king of Wurtmberg, in Germany, bought it for 580 pounds. This was the highest bid that the horse got. This behavior terrified Francis Hastings Doyle, a famous British who published a poem entitled, Lines on the Sale of the Black Arab in 1847. The poem laments the departure of this purebred Arabian horse from England to Germany.
He also condemned the British negligence of Sayyid Said’s precious gift. From the interpretation of his poem, it is evident that Doyle was not happy with the manner in which the present from the Sultan was treated. As it was mentioned earlier, Sayyid Said was a leader who had favorable diplomatic relation skills. Due to this fact, he maintained good relationship with many other states of the world. England was one among the many states that the king wanted to maintain good relations with. To achieve this goal, he had a number of strategies. One of them was to send a presents to the leaders of this empire. These presents were a symbol of gratitude. It also expressed the respect that he had for the great empire. It is due to this respect that he gave Queen Victoria a horse. This was one of the animals that he was in love with. It was therefore unfair to sell such a present especially after the Englishmen knew its worth and value (Doyle 180).
The Sultan did also send other presents to the royal family of England. This was highlighted in the book that was written by Katherine Jones in the year 2006. In this book, Katherine talks about other presents that were presented to the British empire and the relationship that the empire had with the Sultan. For instance, in the year 1836, a representative of the Sultan arrived at London and wished to get the attention of King William the IV (Katherine 4). He was granted this opportunity. However, the detail of their meeting remained a mystery. What was known however is that he presented a gift to King William from the Sultan. This was a 76-gunner ship that the Sultan had prepared for the King. The ship was built at Bombay and was called Imaam. In the Islamic religion, the word Imaam is used to refer to a religious leader. This ship was therefore representation of the respect that the Sultan had for the leadership of King William. The ship was also a strategic gift since it was during these times that the British government was exploring the world in search of new lands. The ship therefore joined the British fleet. King William IV. did also respond to the presents that he received from the Sultan. He did send him a sheep as a symbol of the gratitude that the sultan had expressed towards him. The king gave Sayyid Said a yacht named Prince Regent. The representative of the Sultan together with his crew used this new vessel for their journey back home.
From the literature that is available, it is evident that the Sultan of Oman and the English royal family had close ties towards each other. This therefore ensured that the relationship between these two independent states was positive. The presents that they exchanged were a symbol of friendship and gratitude that these two states had with each other. Unlike other leaders of the Middle East and Asia, Sayyid Said maintained a positive relationship with other states. This might therefore be the reason why the region has been highly represented in English literature more that it was represented in the Arabic literature.
The Empty Quarter
The ancient Greek and Roman geographers divided the Arabian Peninsula into three parts: Arabia Felix, Arabia Deserta, and Arabia Petraea. These lands were respectively known for their distinctive fertility, wilderness and rocky mountains and stony plains (Doughty 67). If we apply these divisions to the geography of Oman, Arabia Petraea corresponds to the rugged mountainous Interior, Arabia Felix corresponds to Dhufar, and Arabia Deserta corresponds to the Empty Quarter.
Dhufar, indeed, possesses a vital claim of being the ancient Arabia Felix. Its prosperity had been based on frankincense since the times of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. The prosperity of these lands have been linked with religious events since time immemorial. In ancient times, the Greeks began to use Dhofar as an alternative land for their sacrifices. This commenced from sixth century BC. The Romans also used the land for the same purpose. However, their influence begun during the second century BC.
Beside its usage as a means of winning over the gods, Arabian frankincense was also known from early times as a perfume. It was believed by the Romans to be the incense par excellence, and its high price indicated the great demand for it (Groom 15). Pliny, a Roman geographer, devoted a considerable space for the country of Frankincense mentioning Sapphar, and Omana that obviously meant Dhofar and Oman. According to Pliny, the quantity of Arabian incense was burnt by Emperor Nero during the funeral of his wife, Poppaea. Pliny was convinced that trade of frankincense rendered the Arabian Peninsula happy and the blest, and asserted that the Arabs of southern Arabia were the richest nations in the world (Pliny 77). Similarly, Dhofar was mentioned as ‘Saphar’ in the oldest book of travel, the Periplus. The anonymous author of the book wrote, “…and after nine days more there is Shaphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homeritae and those living next to them, called the Sabaites” (Schoff 35). In its detailed account of southern Arabia, the Periplus describes the frankincense of Portus Moscha, which, the American archaeologist Wendell Philips suggests the port of Sumhuram in Dhofar (Philips 189).
In addition, the Greek Arabia Deserta could be applied to the Ruba al-Khali or the Empty Quarter. This was the huge sand-sea that covered some 200,000 square miles and consisted of wastes of Aeolian sands with enormous dunes rising up 60 meters. It became an arena of adventure. T. E. Lawrence writes, “Every explorer for generations has dreamed of it” (329). Certainly, Bertram Thomas, John Philiby, and Wilfred Thesiger were touched by the Empty Quarter through the writings of previous geographers and travellers, and names such as Wellsted, Burton, Miles, Bent and Cox are not infrequently mentioned in their travelogues. In 1835, James Wellsted, from the summit of the Green Mountain in Oman, had an opportunity to get a panoramic view of the Desert. In his book, he describes the spectacular view of the Arabian desert. He could see a vast land of sand that was extensive to the horizon of the lands. It was characterized with huge sand dunes, some of which were very high. However, there were no mountains or vegetation on site. This, according to the writer, was a spectacular view for any explorer (Wellsted 274). It may be due to this fact that many English and American explorers visited the region so as to have a first hand experience of the desert.
While writing the article about Richard Burton, Thomas gives a clear explanation about the Royal Geographical Society in 1852. In his explanation, he expounds on the explorations that were made in South East Arabia. He claims to have gathered enough information from reliable sources regarding to the influence of Al Rub’ al Khali on the population. This included both the natives and non-residents.
Samuel Miles, while travelling from Ibri to Dhank in the interior of Oman in 1885, reached the margin of the great desert or the Rub’ al Khali and provided this perspective. He stated that the land was vast and hostile. It lacked any permanent or reliable source of water. This was due to the fact that it sis not have any rivers, lakes or natural springs. The region was therefore not favorable for human settlement since the natives would have to travel long distances in order to get access to water. The soil was also sandy. As a result therefore, it would practically be impossible for the natives to practice agriculture. Therefore, getting food will be a challenge. Accessibility to the region was also difficult due to the lack of proper roads. The writer has never seen such a hostile land that was so expansive. He approximated the size of this land to be bigger than England and Wales put together (Miles 415).
The Bents, on their journey from Muscat to Dhofar in 1894, were determined to go by sea. This was a strategy to avoid the long stretch of land with harsh desert conditions. Sir Percy Cox, during his 1905 journey from Ibri to Nizwa, decided to explore the Empty Quarter from Adam at the border of the sands, especially when his Bedouin companions agreed to escort him. Cox however claims that the publication of an article by Mr. Bacon suggested that the desert could be crossed by balloon changed his original plans. If he had followed his original plan, he would have been the true pioneer of the Rub al Khali explorers.
This huge and mysterious desert was a challenge to Europeans. However, British travelers managed to cross this sea of sand from coast to coast. They came back overwhelmed by its fascinating silence. Bertram Thomas was the first to cross in 1931 from south to north. He was followed by Harry and John Philby, who traversed the north-western part of the desert in 1932.
As the Europeans traversed the desert, they enjoyed the scenery and the clam environment. This gave them a perfect opportunity to write about their surroundings, discoveries, thoughts and imaginations. Three british writers are renowned for the high quality work of literature that they left behind from their expeditions on the Empty Quarter. This include a book by Thomas Bertram titled, Arabia Felix: across the Empty Quarter in the Arabian Peninsula, another book by John Phillipi titled, The Empty Quarter and finally a book by Wilfred Thesiger titled, Arabian Sands. These books are viewed as masterpieces by many authors, poets and travel writers.
These works, without a doubt, influenced the writers of English fiction. This includes writers and who published collections of poetry, short stories and novels. For Examples, the American writer, Lou Cameron, published a novel entitled, Empty Quarter, in 1962. In 1995, an Irish poet, Gerry Murphy, published a collection of his poems, under the title, Empty Quarter. Under the same title, Sharon Mesmer, an American writer, published in 1999 a collection of short stories. All this creative momentum on the Omani desert in English Literature matches. It is unfortunate that a country with such great history and culture did not get a lot of recognition in its own culture.
Examples of English Poetry on the Empty Quarter
There are several poems that have been written about the Empty Quarter. Among them is a poem written by alan Silitoe. Alan Sillitoe (1928-2010), a British novelist and poet, published in 1993 a collection of his poems. This collection contained a poem entitled, Empty Quarter. This poem talks about the vast lands of the Empty Quarter. They praise the beautiful scenery that was new to many European explorers at that time (Sillitoe 34). In addition, Gerry Murphy (1952-), a contemporary Irish poet, published his third collection in 1995 collection. It was titled, The Empty Quarter (Murphy 46). One of the poems included in this collection mentioned the empty quarter on several occasions. Fergus Allen (1945-) also published his second collection, Who Goes There, in 1996 (Allen 66). It included a poem titled, Inside Arabia. This poem like the others described the empty quarter. Another poet who was haunted by the Empty Quarter is Jane Draycott, a contemporary British poet, who published her collection Prince Rupert’s Drop in 1999. This collection contains a poem entitled ” Timed Exposure” (Draycott 92). In the poem, Draycott describes the remarkable experience that one may have had while explrong the vast deserts of Oman. The strong heat from the sun, unavailability of water, lack of shade and sandy terrain would make an exploration expedition to be even more interesting. The American poet John Canaday was also inspired by the desert of Oman. In 1999, he published in the New England Review his poem, The Empty Quarter. This poem, like the others talked about the great desert (Canaday 57).
Conclusion
The English poems and literature that were written about Oman were well thought and written. They talk about the various aspects of the Sultans personality that made him to be liked by many people. As a leader from the east, the sultan received a lot of respect and dignity from the leaders and natives of the west. Many people talked about the great achievements of the leader. This literature goes on to talk about the land and the natives. It states that the kingdom was stable socially, politically and economically. This was unlike other eastern states that did not have political or social stability. The leaders of these states were brutal and oppressive. They did not welcome visitors from other communities. It is perhaps due to these reasons that many Europeans frequented Oman hence its representation in English literature.
Works Cited
Allen, Fergus. Who Goes There. London: Faber and Faber, 1996.
Billecocq, Xavier. Oman: Twenty-Five Centuries of Travel Writing. London: Relations Internationals, 1994.
Canaday, John. The Empty Quarter. New England Review. London: Middlebury College, 1999.
Cawein, Julius. Weeds by the Wall. Louisville : John P. Morton & Company, 1901.
Cawein, Julius. The Poems, vol.II. Boston : Small, Maynard & Company, 1908.
Cawein, Julius. The Poet and Nature and The Morning Road. Louisville, Kentucky : J. P. Morton & Co., 1914.
Clapp, Nicolas. The Road to Ubar: Finding the Atlantis of the Sands. London: Souvenir Press, 1999.
Doughty, Thomas. The Journey Through Arabia. London: Printed for R. Blamire, 1784.
Doyle, Francis. The return of the guards : and other poems. London : MacMillan, 1883.
Draycott, Jane. Prince Rupert’s Drop. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Fraser, James. Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and 1822.
Including Some Account of the Countries to the North East of Persia. London: Longman, 1825.
Groom, Nigel. Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. London: Longman, 1981.
Katherine, C. (2006). Presents from Zanzibar. London: Sage.
Lawrence, Travis. Selected letters of T. E. Lawrence. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995.
Marsden, William. The Travels of Marco Polo. London: J. M. Dent, 1946.
Mickle, William. Luís The Lusiad. London : Johnson, 1810.
Mignan, Robert. A Winter Journey Through Russia, The Caucasian Alps, and Georgia. London: Richard Bentley, 1839.
Miles, Frank. On the Border of the Great Desert: A Journey in Oman. London: Sage, 1991.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost: A poem in twelve books. London: S. Simmons, 1674.
Moore, Thomas. The Poetical Works. London: Wagner and Co., 1841.
Murphy, Gerry. The Empty Quarter. Dublin: Dedalus Press, 1995.
Roberts, Edmund. Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1837.
Percival, James. The Poetical Works. Boston : Ticknor and Fields, 1859.
Philips, Wendell. Unknown Oman. Beirut: Librairie Du Liban, 1971.
Pliny, Riley. The Natural History of Pliny. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855.
Schoff, Wilfred. The Perpilus of the Erythrean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century. London: Longmans, 1912.
Shelley, Percy. The Complete Poetical Works. London : Clarendon Press, 1904.
Sillitoe, Alan. Collected Poems. London: Harper Collins, 1993.
Sotheby, William. The Battle of the Nile. London, 1799.
Stocqueler, Joachim. Fifteen Months’ Pilgrimage Through untrodden Tracts of Khuzistan and Persia. London: Saunders and Otley, 1832.
Taylor, Bayard. The poetical works. Boston: Mifflin and Company , 1907.
Vincenzo, Maurizi. History of Seyd Said Sultan of Muscat. Cambridge: Oleander Press, 1984.
Waterman, Taylor. A Voyage Round the World in the United States Frigate Columbia. New York: D. Appleton, 1842.
Wellsted, James. Travels in Arabia, Austria: Graz, 1978.