Introduction
There are two major approaches to understanding the cognitive behavior of children – continuous and discontinuous. Continuity theorists conceptualize a smooth-line development that occurs gradually. At the same time, discontinuity theorists believe that the road to maturity is a series of abrupt changes happening in stages (stepping stones), with one milestone preceding the next. Although no stage can be skipped, there are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through these stages (W. Andrew Collins 1984).
Piaget’s hypothesis of cognitive development is a blend of continuous & discontinuous theory (Wadsworth, Barry J). Piaget views children as ‘lone scientists’ making observations and acquiring the mental representation of the world (schema). Interacting with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge (assimilation) and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information (accommodation). The balance between assimilation and accommodation is achieved through a mechanism called equilibration.
Piaget claimed that intellectual growth proceeds through an invariant sequence of four stages. The development happens when the person reaches each stage (Wadsworth, Barry J).
The sensorimotor is the initial stage (0-2 years), during which children use their inborn abilities to learn about the world.
The preoperational is the second stage (2-7 years). During this stage, children are animistic and egocentric, relating to the world only through their perspective.
The concrete operative is the third stage (7-12 years). Children perform cognitive operations, such as decentration and reversibility, which enable them to think logically and systematically about tangible objects, events, and experiences.
The formal operative is the final stage (12+). Not only is formal-operational reasoning rational and abstract, but it also involves both hypothetic-deductive and inductive reasoning.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory: Vygotsky, like Piaget, theorizes that “children construct knowledge” (Davidson Films, 2010). However, Vygotsky emphasizes the influence of social and cultural aspects on intellectual growth.
He created three themes of speech and language development: external, self-directed, and inner voice. Infants learn through interactions with their primary caregivers. Self-directed speech occurs from ages 3 to 7. Children’s private speech becomes a cognitive self-guidance system that regulates problem-solving activities and is eventually internalized to become a covert, verbal thought.
An adult who possesses inner speech does not need to think out loud as they make decisions; they talk to themselves and process ideas before they speak. For example, a student might use inner speech to remind herself to study for her science test or be able to solve a math problem and use verbal speech to ask the teacher to define a scientific term.
Vygotsky’s most famous theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is the distance between what learners can do individually and what they can do with assistance from a more knowledgeable other (MKO). MKOs could be parents, teachers, classmates, colleagues, or even a digital environment “intended to support intentional learning” (John-Steiner, 1996, p. 199). Children acquire cultural beliefs, values, and problem-solving strategies in the context of collaborative dialogues with MKOs within this ZPD.
Similarities between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories on Cognitive Development
Piaget and Vygotsky both emphasized the concept of constructivism. It states that learners conceive and construct knowledge themselves rather than passively take in information. Both commonly believed that children are dynamic scholars who purposefully arrange new data with previously acquired knowledge.
E.g.: A set of children are reading each word by syllable, and it is evident that the students are reading to themselves to translate what is in their mind (in their native language) to English. This verbal thinking forms the basis for higher-level thinking so that children could use reasoning to help them understand the story in their native language and then attempt to read it in English.
Both Piaget and Vygotsky suggested that expertise is created by individuals rather than attained through reflex training (Ebadi, 2021).
They believed that rivalry is the initial point for intellectual development. For instance, according to Piaget’s theory, when a youngster recognizes that a new thought does not integrate with past information, he must locate a new reply to sustain equilibrium.
Finally, both theorists believed that speech is vital for intellectual maturation.
Application of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Educational Settings
Learning can be achieved by integrating Piaget’s & Vygotsky’s theories in these essential elements of teaching: Fundamental elements, Collaborative elements, and Learning assessment elements of the classroom.
During the pre-operational stage, lessons must be designed based on the child’s egocentrism and initial schemas. The teacher can ascertain how children’s schema of a particular subject is accurate to the real phenomenon. To start assimilation, the teacher allows children to actively encounter new experiences while referring to their original schema. Once children are ready, the accommodation process starts, and their original schema is expanded. Therefore, a teacher needs to establish how preschoolers conceive of a subject first, otherwise, new experiences may contradict the established schema, thus rendering teaching efforts meaningless.
For the Concrete operational stage, the learner-centered model activities would be based on logical thinking. To encourage the active construction of new knowledge teacher normally begins by presenting a real-world situation.
E.g.: A primary school teacher presents to the class the ‘Gateway building’ in Singapore (shaped Trapezium), before teaching measurement of the Trapezium. Rather than starting the problem by introducing the formula, the teacher allows students to reflect and construct their methods of measurement of the building after making a model.
Collaborative elements, such as multiple perspectives and social negotiation, can be integrated into activities using small or large teams to collaboratively construct knowledge. In such activities, multiple viewpoints are presented, covering various ideas, and concepts. Social negotiation among learners must be encouraged for a successful socio-cultural environment.
E.g.: Students investigate a new topic as a group of 3-5 students. Groups are required to narrow down the topic and assign a subtopic to each person. After having organized the information, the group presents the information to the class.
Linkages to Dynamic Assessment and Mediated Learning
The lack of adequate static assessment of a person’s training ability, particular deficient features, modifying mechanisms, and mediational approaches spurred the advancement of vibrant or dynamic assessment (DA). Lately, there has been a rise in the demand for DA with youngsters for early interventions and treatment judgment and for effective mediated learning (ML). ML focuses on making children become learners who are self-directed and independent.
Bekka (2010) claims that the interaction between the educators and the student in DA creates their ZPD in which learning potential appears. Assessing it means creating his or her ZPD through this kind of interaction. Students learn by integrating assessment and instruction. Dynamic assessment is also effective in estimating children’s intellectual ability in schools. The DA strategy helps evaluate the success of cognitive learning courses. According to Vygotsky’s theory, DA & ML enable approachability without a set curriculum.
DA is a subcategory of ZPD that emerged from Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory, according to which education and evaluation are integrated as the elements of the instructional process. Like ZPD, ML is an essential part of DA. Though ZPD is about individual potential growth, mediation creates an opportunity for growth. Vygotsky’s culture theory, particularly the region of proximal growth theory, and Piaget’s moderated learning experiences theory are the conceptual basis of any given findings of DA.
References
Ebadi, S., & Bashir, S. (2021). An exploration into EFL learners’ writing skills via mobile-based dynamic assessment. Education and Information Technologies, 26(2), 1995-2016.
Huang, Y. C. (2021, May). Comparison and Contrast of Piaget and Vygotsky’s Theories. In 7th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2021) (pp. 28-32). Atlantis Press.
Klimkowski, K. (2019). Educational theory: From Dewey to Vygotsky. In The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Education (pp. 29-45). Routledge.
Tzuriel, D. (2021). The Theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability and Mediated Learning Experience (SCM-MLE). In Mediated Learning and Cognitive Modifiability (pp. 13-52). Springer, Cham.
Collins WA,(1984). Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve (Chapter 3 Cognitive Development In School-Age Children: Conclusions And New Directions. National Research Council (US) Panel to Review the Status of Basic Research on School-Age Children; Collins WA, editor. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1984.
Wadsworth, Barry J Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: An Introduction for Students of Psychology and Education.