Single African American Mothers’ Relationships With Sons

Abstract

To investigate the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons, I employed a generic qualitative design in the study. My purpose was to address a gap in the literature by providing a deeper understanding of single African American women’s experiences as mothers of adolescent sons, including their interactions with the young men. These experiences included the way in which these mothers developed positive relationships with their sons over time. In this study, face-to-face interviewswere held to collect data from the eight participantswho lived in a suburban area and were between the ages of 30 and 55.

Data were analyzed using thematic analysis with inductive coding. Iemployed the following research question to guide the process of data collection and analysis to answer the research question,“How do single African American mothers experience their relationship with their adolescent sons?”Four themes were found in the data:

1. the mother-son bond,
2. perceptions of parental roles and responsibilities,
3. emotional challenges, and
4. racism and discrimination.

Ifound thatthe African American mothers in the study developed a close and affectionate relationship with their sons. Despite the absence of the sons’ fathers, the women were dedicated and committed to their roles and responsibilities and explained that they lived in constant fear that their sons might be harmed or even killed by the police.

The participants attempted to address these concerns by educating their sons about anti-violence ethical-moral standards, diversity, and survival instructions if they were stopped by a police officer while driving their car. The single mothers also discussed their continuous efforts to protect their sons from racism and discrimination.Recommendations arefor future scholars to focus on the experiences of adolescent sons raised by single mothers and gather data on this phenomenon from the perspectives of the sons.

Dedication

Acknowledgments.

Table of Contents

• Acknowledgments
• List of Tables
• Chapter 1. Introduction

  • Background of the Study
  • Need for the Study
  • Purpose of the Study
  • Significance of the Study
  • Research Question
  • Definition of Terms
  • Research Design
  • Assumptions and Limitations

    • Assumptions
    • Limitations
  • Organization of the Remainder of the Study
• Chapter 2. Literature Review

  • Methods of Searching
  • Theoretical Orientation for the Study
  • Review of the Literature
  • Synthesis of the Research Findings
  • Critique of Previous Research Methods
  • Summary
• Chapter 3. Methodology

  • Purpose of the Study
  • Research Question
  • Research Design
  • Target Population and Sample

    • Population
    • Sample
  • Procedures
  • Participant Selection

    • Protection of Participants
    • Data Collection
    • Data Analysis
  • Instruments

    • The Role of the Researcher
    • Guiding Interview Questions
  • Ethical Considerations
  • Summary
• Chapter 4. Presentation of the Data

  • Introduction: The Study and the Researcher
  • Description of the Sample
  • Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis
  • Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis
  • Summary
• Chapter 5. Discussion, Implications, Recommendations

  • Summary of the Results
  • Discussion of the Results
  • Conclusions Based on the Result
  • Comparison of Findings With Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature
  • Interpretation of the Findings
  • Limitatations
  • Implications for Practice
  • Recommendations for Further Research
  • Conclusion
• References
• Statement of Original Work
• Appendix A. Interview Questions
• Appendix B. Demographic Questionnaire
• Appendix C. Recrutment Flyer

List of Tables

• Table 1. Description of Sample
• Table 2. Patterns
• Table 3. Themes

Introduction

The research topic for this study dealt with the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their sons. The study was conducted using a qualitative approach. Chapter 1 consists of the background of the study, need for the study, purpose, and significance of the study. Also presented are the research questions, research design, definitions, limitations and assumptions of the study, and organization of the remainder of the study.

Background of the Study

Single parenting and its impact on parents and children is a topic of interest in the field of psychology. According to Wu, Appleman, Salazar, and Ong (2015), various factors such as divorce, separation, having a child out of wedlock, and death are among the causes of single parenting in the country. Another factor is lack of preparedness (Cohn, 2016), and as a result, socio-emotional and economic burdens emerge (S. Snyder, 2016).

Maynard, Salas-Wright, and Vaughn (2015) believed that single parenting is likely to become more common for women as they continue to achieve economic independence. Economic dependence is one of the primary reasons women do not divorce or separate from their partners, despite a dispirited relationship (Maudry-Beverley, 2014). These results have been shaped by the economic impact of gender equality. In attempting to understand the phenomenon of mothering as a single parent, it was also important to understand the social issues that influenced it.

Married women may feel as though it is crucial to walk out of their marriages, even though this means they will raise their children alone. In most cases, it is often too late to reverse the situation, especially when the separation leads to divorce, and the divorce process is complete (Benner, Boyle, & Sadler, 2016). However, they soon realize the responsibility to raise their children as a single parent was not as easy as they thought. Formerly married women may find themselves in a situation they had not imagined before. Findings of this study may be helpful to married women who may be considering a divorce. It is important for them to have this knowledge before separating so they can avoid the unnecessary pain and challenges of parenting a child alone.

Single parenting is increasingly becoming a common phenomenon in the United Statesfor, according to Elliott, Powell, and Brenton (2013), recent statistics showed that single parents raise about 50%of African American children. The study also indicated that 70% of single parents were mothers. Johnsen and Friborg (2015) stated that many single mothers are forced to raise their children without the emotional and financial support from male partners who fathered these children.

Taking care of the family’s financial needs is a challenging task, but G. Williams and Smalls (2015) explained that parenting goes beyond that. Parenting also entails understanding the unique needs of one’s children and addressing them in the best way possible. The purpose of this dissertation was to chronicle the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons.

One major challenge of single parenting is raising adolescents because,according to Leech (2016), adolescence is a very sensitive stage in their development. Parenting a teenage son as a single mother can be overwhelming. While financial needs may not be a problem, there is a lack of socio-emotional preparedness that is part the phenomenon (Cohn, 2016; S. Snyder, 2016). At this stage, children are trying to understand their personalities in the path toward adulthood. Even if the experience of parenting the child had been enjoyable thus far, things are likely to change at this sensitive stage of development. There are various reasons for the change in the relationship.

The way parents experience their relationships with their children may depend on many factors, one of which is the availability of a partner to share the responsibility. Ebert et al. (2015) opined that it is the desire of people to have a normal family system in which both parents are involved in co-parenting. However, for various reasons, one parent may be forced to care for a child alone. Slonim (2014) stated that when a mother has to bring up a child without the support of a partner, the socioeconomic pressure can be overwhelming. Such a parent will not only be expected to provide for the economic needs of the child, but also the emotional and social needs.

Slonim (2014) argued that the joy of being a parent can be lost because of the pain and frustration that one has to go through to ensure meeting children’s needs. Economic factors such as the high cost of living forces some low-income earners to take on two or three jobs to stay within a budget (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). In the case of single female parents, there may be a very limited time during the day and evening to guide theirchildren’s social and emotional development. These experiences may affect the relationship between single mothers and their children. I became interested in this topic because of the complexity of the mother-child relationship within this context.

The phenomenon was of special interest to me because of several factors. Within the community where I live, single parenting has become common, and statistics show that it is likely to become worse (Leech, 2016). Based on personal experiences, I have witnessed the emotional pain single mothers experience when caring for their adolescent sons without the support of their partners. Some mothers consider taking their own lives, which may indicate the intensity of the unpleasant experiences caring for these children (Leech, 2016). Others opt to take their children to their grandparents to help them with parenting.

Leman (2015) explained that a single mother may consider abandoning her family becauseshe is no longer able to withstand the pressure. Some mothers who have not had the experience of parenting an adolescent alone feel they can easily overcome the challenge (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Those same issues may not apply to married women.

Single African American mothers in the United States encounter socioeconomic challenges; Barnett and Scaramella (2013) investigating the socioeconomic challenges of African Americans in the United States through the lens of Black psychology theory.There is a distinction between being a single mother and a single African American mother (Barnett & Scaramella, 2013). In order for me to identify the challenges these women encounter when parenting adolescent sons, it was critical that I define the experiences of these single African American mothers.Some single mothers are often overwhelmed by the challenges of parenting their adolescent sons.

They abandon their parenting responsibilities andcan only hope that meeting their financial needs is enough so that teachers, close relatives, and other members of society will address any other needs. Findings from this study may be used to identify ways in which single African American mothers can successfully parent their adolescent sons despite the expected challenges.

Need for the Study

There was a gap in the literature on the subject of single African American mothers who parent adolescent sons. The studies dealt withthe experiences of a single mother, but they did not specifically provide enough details about the experience of single African American mothers. The study was needed since thestudies that were reviewed did not completely address the experiences of single African American mothers who were raising adolescent sons.

Finding appropriate ways to improve the experience of these parents may be necessary as the problem becomes more prevalent among the targeted group (Cohn, 2016). Past studies explored possible causes of single parenting, the socioeconomic impact, and how the affected individuals dealt with their situation (Weinrath, Donatelli, & Murchison, 2016), but did not specifically address single African American mothers.

The statistics showed that the problem of single parenting is more common among African American females than among White females (Evans, 2014). According to Irvine, Drew, and Sainsbury (2013), studies indicated that over 25% of African American females between the ages of 22 and 44 were single mothers, while only 9% of White females were single mothers (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). However, these studies did not address African American mothers’ experience of relationships with their adolescent sons in these relationships’ dynamics. The findings from this dissertation study may fill a gap in the literature.

Previous studies have discussed the way these parents cope with various socioeconomic and emotional challenges when parenting their adolescent sons (Evans, 2014; Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). These studies show that the majority of single mothers preferred having girls instead of boys (Evans, 2014). Researchers have noted that parents may not only worsen relationships but also deny adolescents the affection they needed from the parent.

Other single mothers believed it was more challenging to raise adolescent boys because of their rebellious nature (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Another challenge that single mothers face while parenting adolescent sons is the inability to offer them advice based on personal experience. As such, they prefer parenting adolescent girls to adolescent boys (Evans, 2014). They feel that they can offer the girls guidance based on their own experiences as young girls when they were a similar age. M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) argued the lack of parenting skills may aggravate the problems that single mothers face.

While conducting the literature review, I found that scant research has been conducted that addresses the African American mothers’ experience of relationships with their adolescent sons in these relationships’ dynamics. Based on the findings of this study, it may be possible to fill a gap in professional knowledge by informing the field of psychology with data from the dissertation. Information on the unique emotional challenges identified in this study can be critical to counselors whose services are needed by these single mothers. Identifying African American single mothers’ experiences of their relationships with their adolescent sons resulted in findings that can be used to help single parents manage their situation, especially from an emotional perspective.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to identify the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. S. Snyder (2016) discussed various challenges single African American mothers face and the way it affects their ability to care for their children and help them become responsible and successful adults. Doody and Noonan (2013) explained that although the problem has always been an issue for parents, it has not been given proper attention. Findings from thisstudy may be used to inform the field of psychology of the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons.

There are numerous ways to define the parent-child relationship. Some parents are successful in developing a close relationship with their children (Slonim, 2014). Parents may be able to discuss anything that directly affects the relationship and the family in general. In other cases, the relationship is strained, making it difficult for the two to have meaningful discussions and communicate about personal issues.

The communication between single mothers and their adolescent sons can be an area of concern, specifically as it relates to discussing sex; S. Snyder (2016) considered that although American society has made significant steps in fighting stereotypes and traditional concepts that made it taboo for mothers to talk about sex with their sons, it is still not easy for mothers to address sex-related problems with their sons.

M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) argued that it is often easier for a female child to open up about personal issues to her mother than for an adolescent son to do so. It is also less stressful for female parents to talk about sexual health and sexuality with their adolescent daughters, a very important topic for adolescents of either sex (A. Williams, Ryan, Davis-Kean, McLoyd, & Schulenberg, 2017). Single mothers realize the topic is necessary, but they may be reluctant to discuss it.

Close relationships that single mothers have with their adolescent daughters can offer ways for them to share pleasurable experiences, especially when addressing developmental challenges that the child is facing (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). The researchers suggested that the same is not true for single mothers parenting adolescent sons because find it challenging to discuss issues related to physical development. Therefore, these single mothers can receive helpful parenting information gathered from research on the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons.

Significance of the Study

A discussion of specific factors that influence single African American mothers’ experiences of their relationships with adolescent sons may help to identify critical findings of parenting (A. Williams et al., 2017). Therefore, it was important to discuss the significance of this study to the wider field of the psychology community who have an interest in the topic and to those individuals who may want to apply the findings and recommendations made.

The findings may not only be beneficial to single African American mothers but to all parents who have or may one day have adolescent sons. Parents may gain a better understanding of how to develop positive relationships with their sons despite the challenges they encounter. The parents may learn to recognize what they have to avoid because of a possible negative impact on the relationship. One of myexpectations was that findings from herinvestigation could help enhance parenting skills, specifically when it comes to the issue of parents creating positive relationships with their children.

Creating a positive relationship can help to ensure parents can easily discuss challenges their children encounter, both at school and home. The schools may benefit ifa parent and a child create such a positive relationship (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). Ifparents support their children with the socioemotional issues the young people face, chances of such students excelling in school may improve. Study findings may also be used to support theories used to guide the study.

Data from this study may also help in determining the applicability of some of the theories developed over the recent past. Black psychology theory and systems theory have gained popularity among scholars conducting studies on parenting and the lifestyles of African Americans living in the United States (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Black psychology and systems theories were frameworks used to identify the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. I used a generic qualitative design to identify the experiences of single African American mothers. Themes that emerged from participant responses were the basis of the findings and results of the study.

Research Question

The research question was, “How do single African American mothers experience their relationship with their adolescent sons?”

Definition of Terms

• Adolescence. In this study, the term adolescence referred to a development stage from childhood to adulthood (Schneider & Coleman, 2018). It is a critical developmental stage when children develop self-identity asthey become adults. Adolescence can be understood as the period of life when an individual is between 10 and 19yearsold; however, this dissertation study focused on mid- to late-adolescence (approximately between the ages of 14 and 19) because there might be major differences between younger and older adolescents (Varner & Mandara, 2013).
• African American.An ethnic group in the United States with partial or total ancestry from Africa is referred to as African American (Baudin, Croix, & Gobbi, 2015). In this study, the term referred to the African American population in the United States.
• Communal.The term communal refers to a system that brings together members of a society in a shared responsibility (Chetty, Hendren, Kline, & Saez, 2014). It includes the spirit of collectivism in which members of the society feel they bear some responsibility of ensuring that everything happens as per expectations (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). Ireferred to communal as the feeling people have that they are obliged to help others in every possible way, especially single parents when parenting adolescents.
• Experience. In this study, the term experience referred to an encounter that left a lasting impression on a person (Zinn, Hondagneu-Sotelo, & Messner, 2016). I used this the termto refer to the encounters that single African American mothers have when parenting their adolescent sons.
• Parenting.The process of supporting and promoting the physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development of a person, from infancy to adulthood was described as parenting by Manning, Brown, and Stykes (2014). The study focus was not on the process of parenting itself, but the experiences that single African American mothers had when parenting their adolescent sons.
• Racism.The term racism referred to discrimination or prejudice directed against an individual or a group of people because of the misconception that their race is inferior (Donnelly et al., 2015). The problem of racial superiority is common in the United States and often has a serious impact on the affected group.
• Relationship.The emotional bond, a feeling of duty, and the obligations that mothers and sons experience toward each other was referred to as a relationship by several researchers (Elliott et al., 2013; Wilson, Henriksen, Bustamante, & Irby, 2016).
• Single African American mothers.I used the phrase single African Americanmotherwhen I was referring to women who are Black Americans, but have ancestors of African origin, have a son, and raise that son without the assistance of a partner, such as a son’s father (Barajas, 2011; Choi & Jackson, 2011).
• Single mother. In this paper, single mother referred to a scenario where a mother must support and promote the physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development of a child from infancy to adulthood in the absence of the father (Spring, 2016).

Research Design

This study was designed to identify the experiences of single African American mothers. The most appropriate design for this study was to apply a qualitative research method. This designwas appropriate because it enabled me to obtain a detailed explanation of why certain events happened in a given manner. According to Percy, Kostere, and Kostere (2015), although quantitative research makes it possible to use mathematical tools to quantify a given issue under investigation, such researchmay be limited in offer explanations of why a phenomenon happened in a given manner. Qualitative research was appropriate for addressing the experiences of these women because in-depth personal information could be obtained from their perspective.

Aqualitative research design was considered appropriate for the study based on achieving the aim and objectives for this study. It was necessary to conduct research experiences of single African American mothers of their relationship with their sons. The chosen design as the most appropriate way to engage the parents and discuss the experiences they had with their sons (Percy et al., 2015). An in-depth analysis of their experiences would enable me to identify specific factors that defined the experience.

Percy et al. (2015) argued that this approach is appropriate when it is necessary to go beyond providing statistics. A generic qualitative research approach helped to facilitate an investigation of the given phenomenon and to describe how to address the undesirable impacts or characteristics of single parenthood (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Qualitative data made it possible to identify these experiences from individual perspectives, based on various socioeconomic factors (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). The identified experiences became the themes related in the findings from the thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis is appropriate for a generic qualitative study. Data analysis included using coding to identify themes in the transcribed data (Percy et al., 2015). The approach was appropriate since I was investigating the experience of single AfricanAmerican mothers who parented adolescent sons. The data were collected from participants through interviews. When identifying single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons, it was necessary to allow each of the participants to describe the unique personal experience without limiting them to a structured format of answering the questions (Ehde, Dillworth, & Turner, 2014).

Assumptions and Limitations

The generic qualitative approach used to conduct this study included assumptions considered before the selection of the design. Identifying the limitations of this methodology, design, and the study was also important, since they had implications for a variety of factors related to the findings of the study. There were several assumptions and limitations made. According to Evans (2014), it was important to identify assumptions and limitations in the study to help those who may choose to use it to inform their policies.

Assumptions

Qualitative research uses a holistic approach to identify the experiences, behaviors, and emotions of an experience. In social sciences, it may not be possible to control various factors relevant to the study. Leman (2015) explained that social scientists could only make assumptions because of the inability to control the actions and decision of human beings. This dissertation study included ontological, epistemological, axiological, theoretical, and general assumptions.

One of the primary assumptions made in this study was that single African American mothers would have similar experiences of their relationships with their adolescent sons if they shared similar socioeconomic factors. I assumed that the participants would be open and honest as they shared their perceptions of single motherhood. An ontological assumption was that participants would provide accurate information during the semi-structured interviews regarding their experiences of the relationships with their adolescent sons, which may be different from the reality of another individual (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).

The level of diversity of this experience was beyond the scope of the study. As such, it was necessary to consider the ontological assumptions when conducting the research. According to Leman (2015), the experiences of single mothers’ relationships with adolescent sons varied and depended on many factors, such as the discipline level of the child, academic excellence, social behavior, the economic status of the family, among many other factors.

The study also required epistemological assumptions. In a qualitative study, researchers must bring their whole selves into the process of exploring a phenomenon to find the answers to the posed research questions (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). The use of semi-structured interviews consisted of interaction with participants; therefore, there was an epistemological assumption that my participants and I were dependent on one another for accurate data collection. Each interview was developed by the conversation and interaction throughout the interview.Therefore,data collection depended on my interviewing skills and interaction with the participants.

Axiological assumptions required the consideration of my values during the study. Corbin and Strauss (2008) opined that it was necessary to consider the personal values of the researcher to avoid undue influence during the study. I acknowledged my personal values through self-reflection and recognized biases that could have affected the findings; because I am a single African American mother of an adolescent son, I realized that differences might have existed between personal and participants’ experiences.

Therefore, I needed to develop strategies to put these personal biases aside. One of the most important strategies I employed was to select participants based strictly on the inclusion/exclusion criteria instead of personal preferences, as discussed in chapter 3. Another strategy was to base conclusion and recommendations on the findings from primary and secondary sources. Corbin and Strauss (2015) note that sometimes one may be tempted to base recommendations on personal feeling and experiences. I avoided such temptations and ensured that proposed policies and practices are based on information obtained from different books, journal articles, and primary data from the participants.

Some of the assumptions made in this study focused on certain aspects of various theories. One important theoretical assumption was that Black psychology theory could be applied to an African American research population. According to Finer and Zolna (2016), the theory is relevant to the majority of African American citizens, especially in places of work and other social settings. There are psychological consequences of being African American in the United States. Abramovitz (2018) explained that being a young Black male in the United States means that he has to contend with victimization and stereotypes.

For instance, there is a perception that the majority of young Black males are drug addicts or drug peddlers who are violent (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The United States has made impressive steps in confronting racism and other factors that divide the country into groups based on a person’sskin color (Spring, 2016). In 2008, the election of the first African American president was seen as a major step toward creating a society that was tolerant of cultural diversity (Braxton, 2015). However, Leman (2015) argued that the problem of racism continues to be a problem in various segments of American society.

Being an African American means overcoming hurdlesthat are placed in the way of students and job seekers. According to Abramovitz (2018), many employers were more willing to hire Whites than Blacks, even in cases when the Black person had better qualifications for the job. Many African Americans have to deal with these realities. As a result, this dissertation research assumedthatthe African American mothers she interviewed would likely face the same issues with gainful employment. It may be possible the single mother might be financially empowered and might not have problems meeting the family’s economic needs.

However, financial empowerment would not shield her from the psychological consequences of being African American (Spring, 2016). Such experiences may have direct consequences on the relationship these parents had with their adolescent sons.

Limitations

Identifying and discussing limitations was critical, especially for those who may be interested in using the study to inform the field of psychology. The research question was, “How do single African American mothers experience their relationship with their adolescent sons?” Data were collected to respond to this research question and found limitations during the collection, analyzation, and processing of data.

Data used in this study were collected from single African American mothers. Leman (2015) advised that when collecting data, it is critical for the researcher to investigate the people that best fit the needs of the investigation. The most appropriate people to provide information about the experience were single mothers who identified their perceptions of parenting their adolescents. No one can purport to understand this experience better than individuals who are directly affected. These criteria limited my ability to understand what other members of the society felt about the issue under investigation; however, this was not intended to be within the scope of the study.

The perspective of everyone involved in an experience should be included. While the views of single mothers were critical for the study, it would also be vital to understand the perceptions of the adolescent son’s relationship with the parent. Although this study did not focus on the experience of adolescent sons and their relationship with their single mothers, understanding their views and thoughts on this issue would be valuable and could provide further justification or understanding of the issues that were identified by single mothers.

Such information could make it possible to understand any misunderstandings or mistrust that might have existed between a mother and a child (Evans, 2014). It would be possible for me to identify the genesis of some of the complaints and frustrations that parents had with their sons if an ethnographic study was undertaken. However, this was not part of the scope of the study.

Design Flaw

It is important to note that the design had some flaws despite the effort that I made to ensure that most of the issues that could affect credibility of the study are addressed. One of the major design flaws was that data were only collected from participants residing in a single state in the South Atlantic Region of the United States. Single African American mothers’ experiences of their relationship with their adolescent sons are a phenomenon that is not limited to a singlegeographic area (Abramovitz, 2018).

However, I did not choose to collect data from the entire U.S. population. Collecting data from all the states in the country would require resources and time that were beyond the scope of the study. Therefore, the data came from a manageable sample of single African American mothers in one geographic area. As a result, findings from this qualitative study may have limited generalizability to the general population. Although it would have been more appropriate to widen the scope of data collection, the limited time and resources meant that only a small number of people within a specific geographic region participated in the study.

Delimitations

One of the most critical areas of study I intentionally decided not to investigate was the experience of adolescents and their relationships with their mothers in a two-parent home. Adolescent sons experience many challenges when parented by single mothers (Abramovitz, 2018). At this critical stage of their development, they need their fathers to emulate. They need both parents to support them both emotionally and financially. Spring (2016) observed there were issues that adolescent sons are uncomfortable discussing with their mothers, but can share with their fathers. When raised by single mothers only, adolescents are forced to keep these issues to themselves.

Some of them consult with their peers, which makes it easy for them to obtain misleading information. Others have to deal with the problem of having constantly absent mothers due to their need of employment. Briefly identifying these parents’ experiences before identifying the experiences of single mothers was a consideration. However, although that consideration was out of scope in this study, I consider it to be an important area of investigation that future scholars should take seriously to expand knowledge in this field.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter 1 provided a detailed discussion of the background of the research and the problem the study addressed. The background of the problem, the need for the study, and the purpose of the study were presented. The significance of the research included providing justification for the project and a description of the research question and the study design. Assumptions, limitations, and definition of terms concluded the chapter. Chapter 2 provides a detailed review of the literature, a synthesis of the literature, and a critique of research methods. Chapter 3 describes the method used to collect and analyze data, and Chapter 4 summarizesanalysis ofofthe data collected from the participants. Chapter 5 concludes the dissertation and provides findings and recommendations.

Literature Review

This chapter provides a detailed review of the literature and includes a description of the methods of research used to obtain peer-reviewed literature. A detailed review of applicable theories is presented, since Black psychology theory and systems theory supported the theoretical foundation of the study. Sections in the chapter explain, compare, and synthesize literature about the factors that influence parenting of adolescents, such as culture, social status, gender, level of discipline and academic excellence of a child, religious support, government support, and the personal relationship between mother and child. This chapter includes the synthesis of research findings, a critique of previous research methods, and a summary.

Methods of Searching

The literature review was a critical element of the study. According to Benner et al. (2016), when conducting research, it is important to review findings made by other scholars. The process not only provided background information but also identified gaps in the existing knowledge. Sources for the research included peer-reviewed journal articles and books. Capella University’s library was used to locate journal articles and other sources.

An online search also made it possible to find current articles on the research topic. Some of the databases that proved useful included Google Scholar, JStor, Academic Search, Pro-Quest, and EBSCO. The databases were used to locate recently published journal articles about single parenting, especially among African American women. Keywords such as single parenting,African American mothers, and parenting adolescents allowed for the location relevant materials for the study.

Theoretical Orientation for the Study

It was necessary for me to analyze specific theories relevant to the study to determine which were most applicable. According to Brody et al. (2014), the theoretical orientation for the study offers a researcher the basis for ideas to develop. Different theories and concepts can be applied to determine how single African American women parent their adolescent sons (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2013). Two theoretical concepts were found to be relevant to the research topic, Black psychology theory(Elliott et al. (2013) and systems theory (vonBertalanffy, 1968). Each theory was analyzed and usedapplied to support the study. Findings from the study may fill a gap in the knowledge of scholars to identify the phenomenon of single African American mothers who raise adolescent sons.

Black Psychology Theory

One of the emerging theories used to describe the African American social setting is Black psychology theory. Elliott et al. (2013) defined Black psychology theory as a concept that can be used to explain the beliefs, behavior, attitude, interactions, and feelings of African Americans. The theory has developed over time, and as observed by Barnett and Scaramella (2013), is based on the social environment of African Americans. One of the main strengths of this theory is that offers a way to understand the historical injustices that have made most of the African Americans less privileged in the United States(Johnsen & Friborg, 2015).

It also identifies challenges that continue to make it difficult to eradicate racism. The weakness of this theory is that it ignores challenges that other minority groups (other than African Americans) face in the country. Black psychology theory is similar to systems theory, in that both focus on the social systems and structures of society. However, Black psychology theory specifically focuses on the challenges that African Americans face in the United States.

Black psychology theory was used in this study to help explain why African Americans are disadvantaged when compared to other races in the United States. Pierre and Jackson (2014) argued the United States has made impressive steps in the fight against racism. However, more research is necessary to address this issue at school, in the workplace, or various socioeconomic and political settings (Jarvis, George, & Holland, 2013). According to Haefner (2014), White individuals are more likely to be favored in the workplace than African Americans and to be offered preferential treatment in institutions of higher education in the country. Such practices deny a section of the society the opportunity to achieve economic progress.

African Americans often find themselves on the defensive whenever the issue of racism emerges. Brannon, Markus, and Taylor (2015) pointed out a divide that exists among American society along racial lines, with Blacks considered inferior to Whites. This racial division emergedbecause ofthe history of Africans in America, according to Brannon et al. (2015). Most Africans came to the United States during the colonial era as slaves (Emmen et al., 2013).

As noted by Wang and Kenny (2014), American society useda caste system at that time, which meant that African Americans could not achieve socioeconomic and political success through any means, primarily due to their skin color. According to Vescia (2017), with the Emancipation Proclamation enacted in 1863, there was the promise that every American citizen would be free, but the perception toward African Americans never changed. Although the abolishment of slavery occurred in 1865, nearly 100 hundred years after independence and now, almost 250 years later, racism remains a problem in American society.

American society also continues struggling with the problem of racism in schools and in the workplace environment. Most African American job seekers in the past were willing to do anything to get work and therefore would accept the least possible pay; this strengthened the narrative that African Americans could only be servants (Pauker, Apfelbaum, & Spitzer, 2015). This added to the negative perception that Whites had toward African Americans (Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016). Disparities along racial lines remain in American society.

Systems Theory

Systems theory was also relevant for this dissertation study. Von Bertalanffy (1968) defined systems theory as “the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence” (p. 34). Some models, laws, and principles apply to generalized systems, irrespective of the nature of their elements, kind, relations, or forces between them.

A family unit is one example of a system that could be guided by principles explained in this theory. According to J. Brown (2016), every member of the family has a role to play, and the individuals’ experiences largely depend on how well each person accomplishes their responsibilities. Under normal circumstances, there is an expectation that every member will meet the expectations of the rest of the family members. When that happens, each person in the family unit is more likely to be satisfied.

In a family headed by a single mother, the uniqueness of their burden must be understood. When both parents are present, there is the expectation of shared responsibility (Bendassolli, 2013). For a single mother, the benefit of sharing parenting responsibility is lost (Hilal & Alabri, 2013). Instead, the expectation is for the mother to meet all the material needs of the child as a single parent (Hanson & Gluckman, 2014).

In other cases, the mother may not be present to offer the child emotional support and guidance because she has to work to meet the family’s financial needs. When the other parent is absent, she may become overwhelmed and may fail to meet either the financial or emotionalneeds of the child. Any such failure on the part of the parent, as explained in this theory, may affect the entire family system. As a result, the child may easily engage in socially unacceptable practices (Clinard, 2015) that can have a negative impact on the mother.

Review of the Literature

Parenting is a widely studied topic that scholars addressed by applying the concepts investigated in this study. Barnett and Scaramella (2013) explained that socioeconomic and political changes in society have resulted in cultural differences over the past seven decades for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics in the United States. A century ago, women in the United States were not allowed to vote, and only a few of them were active in the corporate world (Varner & Mandara, 2013). However, that has changed for women of all races.

When conducting this research, it was important for the investigator to appreciate that experiences of African American women have changed over the years. The socioeconomic and political changes that single African American women experiencedwhen raising a son in 1930 were different from those that have occurred since the turn of the 21^st centuryis century (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). As a result of these changes, it is important to revisit the topic to understand the positive steps that have been taken, but to also address areas that continue toneed the attention of society (Pachankis, Hatzenbuehler, Rendina, Safren, & Parsons, 2015).

Single Parenting in the United States

According to recent statistics, single parenting has become a common phenomenon in the United States (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015), and the researchers stated that a cause of single parenting might be from divorce, separation, incarceration of one of the partners, or death of a partner. According to Irvine et al. (2013), the primary causes of single parenting in the country are divorce and separation of the partners.

Barnett and Scaramella (2013) argued that now, more than ever, many marriages end up in divorce before their fifth year. The phenomenon is not unique, but the rate at which American marriages are ending in divorce or separation is concerning; Barnett and Scaramella (2013) observed. The statistics show that the number of children living with an unmarried mother rose consistently since the 1960s. In 1960, less than 10% of children were raised with unmarried mothers but by 2010, the number had increased to 24% (Blankstein, Noguera, Kelly, & Tutu, 2016).

Whites are the least affected group, although the problem is also becoming prevalent among the White race; in 1960, about 9% of White children were raised by unmarried mothers (Blankstein et al., 2016). The researchers further noted that the number of White children raised by unmarried mothers had more than doubled to 19% in 2010. Hispanics have experienced a similar problem. In 1978, about 18% of Hispanic children were raised by single mothers, and the overall number is expected to increase as cases of divorce are on the rise (Blankstein et al., 2016).

The social problemsthat result from single parenting affect African American mothers more than any other population in the United States. Since the 1960s, the number of African American children raised by single mothers has been more than twice the country’s average (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016), and less than 10% of American children were raised by single mothers. At that time, 20% of African American children were under the care of single mothers (Atzaba-Poria, Deater-Deckard, & Bell, 2014).

In 1990, 54% of African American minors were parented by single mothers and the country’s single-parent home average was 22%(M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). In 2010, 50% of African American children were parented by single mothers, while the country’s average was 24% (Benner et al., 2016). Because of the prevalence of this problem among African Americans, I chose to limit the study to this group because it is the most impacted population.

Stinson (2013) reportedthat one of the leading causes of divorce and separation in the United States is infidelity. Modern technology, especially the growing popularity of smartphones and other communication gadgets and software, has made it easy for couples to trace activities and determine if their partner is unfaithful. The rate at which men are cheating on their wives has not changed much, according to a study conducted by Nobles (2013); however, it is easier for wives to determine if their spouses are cheating. On the other hand, the rate at which women are cheating on their spouses has increased significantly in modern society, compared to a century ago (Johnsen &Friborg, 2015), and some suggest social media is to blame (Haefner, 2014).

The emergence of social media platforms is a factor that in relationship failure, for according to a report by J. Brown (2016), and social media can be very addictive. People may be unable to spend more than 30 minutes of their free time without visiting Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp. Traditionally, couples were expected to have family time together after work to discuss fundamental issues, such as the academic progress of children, financial status of the family, challenges a couple encounters, and related topics (Wang & Kenny, 2014).

However, this is no longer the case. Some couples are so addicted to social media that they no longer spend enough time with their families (Jeynes, 2015). After work, many couples turn to social media sharing with friends and family members. The couple may be physically close, but there is no connection because of the time they spent chatting with others, whether it is down the block or miles away. One partner may need the attention of the other, but it may not be easy to get because of the obsession with social media. Leech (2016) explained that in such instances, a rift may emerge between the couple, and they can find it difficult to remain together in a relationship. The outcome of such undesirable situations is separation or divorce.

Social networking is another issue responsible for the rising cases of divorce.Social networking sites not only distract couples from giving their partners attention they need but also promote vices that can be dangerous to the unity of a family. According to Haefner (2014), it is easier for a person to make sexual advances toward a peer after work than when having a face-to-face meeting. Those who are shy may find social media a perfect platform for seduction (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016). When a partner finds compromising messages on their partner’s social media account, this may strain the relationship.

In other cases, a partner may be attracted to or enticed by a peer who reaches out through social media. Such cases occur when romance and attention are lacking in the family. When an individual realizes that someone is willing to give them the attention they need, they can easily compromise their marriage vows (Doody & Noonan, 2013). When infidelity occurs, the fate of the family is uncertain. The emergence of hook-up sites seeking to connect men and women seeking love or casual relationships has worsened the problem.

Doody and Noonan (2013) defined hook-up sites as social network platforms that bring together those who are looking for a short- or long-term relationship. Ashley Madison, Adult Friend Finder, and Fling.com are some of the sites people visit when they realize the romance they need is lacking at home (Hajar, 2016). When a partner begins to seek love and attention from outside the family, these actions may affect the relationship.

The increased blame for a rise in single-parent homeshas been placed on the empowerment of women (Cahn, Carbone, DeRose, & Wilcox, 2018). In the past, women were forced to endure physical, emotional, and verbal abuse from their husbands (Stinson, 2013). They had to depend solely on their husbands to provide for their families. The love for their children and fear of the unknown would make them withstand all the abuses for the sake of having a stable family (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

However, that is no longer the case. Since the number of jobs that women are allowed to apply for has increased, more women can now afford to lead independent lives without the financial support of their husbands. Women are also more likely to be academically empowered and understand their rights in a family setting (Harris, Sutherland, & Hutchinson, 2013). If a woman feels her dignity is compromised and her love is taken for granted, she may not hesitate to move out of the relationship (Ledgerton, 2013). The laws that are favorable to support of minor children compel men to provide financial support for their children after separation or divorce. Such laws help alleviate woman’s fears because she can continue to receive monetary support for the children.

The increasing relevance of education and the need for economic empowerment in American society has resulted in some women no longer wanting a life-long partner, a perception particularly among the middle-class populace (Leech, 2016). These single women concentrate on their education to gain the relevant skills that enable them to achieve success in the corporate world (Doody & Noonan, 2013). Once they begin a professional life, they focus on achieving career success and spend a majority of their time working and amassing wealth (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

When women are in their early to late twenties and earlythirties, they realize they should consider whether they will become mothers (Cahn et al., 2018).At this stage, single women take different approaches to achieve the goals they desire. Some make a deliberate choice to have children and lead the life of a single mother (Hess & Henig, 2015). They feel that with their financials in order, they can support their families without having a male partner.

These single women believe that being committed to a partner may limit their ability to advance their careers (Ebert et al., 2015). They do not want to be controlled by a partner who will demand to know what they are doing in every instance, but they also feel the pull of motherhood. Another group, as J. Brown (2016) explained, opts to get married and settle down with a chosen partner. However, along the way, they realize they cannot withstand a life where every action they take is subject to scrutiny. Such individuals quickly find their ways out of their relationships, opting to care for their children as single mothers. However, as a single mother, financial support from the absent parent may be needed.

The law is clear about the need for men to support their children, whether after a divorce or after establishing paternity. According to Wang and Kenny (2014), a woman raising a son as a single parent should get regular financial support from the child’s father to meet necessary needs. The problem is that sometimes enforcing the law is not easy. Z. Brown (2016) explained in some cases, men disappear and cannot be easily located after their divorce.

Others consider resigning from their formal jobs to take manual tasks so that it is difficult to track down their earnings (Milkie, Nomaguchi, & Denny, 2015). Men may also succeed in find other ways to avoid the financial responsibility of caring for their children, especially if the mother receives full custody. In such cases, the responsibility of providing for the children falls solely on the mother.

The law is expected to protect single mothers by making men financially responsible for their children, even after the divorce. However, the American system is not as favorable to women as it is to men (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Ford and Moore (2013) noted these laws often encourage women to seek a divorce when they feel uncomfortable in their marriages. Single mothers may suddenly realize the law they expected to protect them financially is not very effective (Katz, 2015). They have to budget the few resources they have to ensure meeting the needs of the family. When the woman is an African American, the experience is worse(Braxton, 2015). For example, some of them find it difficult to get a decent house after divorce because of their limited income. Others are forced to walk to work as they try to ensure that they limit their expenses as much as possible.

Factors That Define the Parenting Experience

Different factors define the experience of a parent and Ford and Moore (2013) researched the issues that single African American mothers encounter when parenting adolescent sons. It is important to recognize that a single African American mother may encounter more traumatizing experiences than do White single mothers (Emmen et al., 2013). The literature that was reviewed during the search did not provide detailed explanations of the experience of single mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. It can bechallenging for a single mother to care for an adolescent son alone, even if they are financially empoweredfurther research on this segment of the population deserves further scrutiny.

Culture

Culture is one of the most important factors that define parenting styles (Stinson (2013). As Haefner (2014) explained, the United States is one of the most demographically diverse countries in the world. Institutions such as technology, schools, workplace environments, and media have tried to break the cultural barrier (Wang & Kenny, 2014). However, Stinson (2013) noted that different social groups have different cultural practices based on their backgrounds.

Behaviors dictated by different cultural patterns can be a major concern when raising an adolescent son. One of these patterns that a majority of Americans follows is whether to discuss issues related to sex with adolescent children (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). For some, it is a taboo for the two to engage in such conversations (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Although individuals in the U.S. society are encouraged by educators to discard such beliefs, it is still uncommon to find an African American adolescent son sharing sex-related issues with their mothers (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

The inability of sons to discuss sex with their mothers may result in youth finding alternative ways of answering their questions about sex.The best alternative from the teenager’s point of view is to turn is to peer at school. The problem is thatthese peers also have no idea how to address their problems (Doody & Noonan, 2013). However, that does not stop peers at school from sharing what they know about sex, whether it is factual or totally inaccurate.

Some mothers are able to find trusted male adults to address a son’s questions or worries. Emmen et al. (2013) noted that knowing the problem that the child is going through but lacking the capacity to address it because of cultural limitations can be especially frustrating for a single parent who has no one to talk to. Single African American mothers’ experience of their relationships with their adolescent sons is directly affected by the culture the society embraces.

According to Cohn (2016), parents are often discouraged, based on the culture that many have embraced in the country, from discussing the financial challenges they encounter with their children, and an adolescent son may not understand the problems that the single mother is going through to meet financial needs. Such sons may be tempted to find ways of addressing their concerns. In such cases, children may seek resolutions without parental approval.For instance, a teenaged male may be lured into acts such as theft, burglary, and robbery to help solve financial problems. Wang and Kenny (2014) noted that most parents were often in denial when informed their sons are engaged in criminal acts.

Others pray and hope for divine intervention to help guide their sons into the right path (Braxton, 2015). If her child has been exposed to harm, the mother may experience trauma because she either was not aware of the child’s problem or did not know how to find a solution (Tayler & Price, 2016). It may be more frustrating when parents realize it was their cultural background that had limited them from addressing problems encountered by their children (Jeynes, 2015).

There is always the concern that the child may opt-out of school as a way of lessening the burden. Wang and Kenny (2014) observed that the majority of these single mothers suffer in silence. They go to great lengths to ensure they meet the needs of their family (Johnsen &Friborg, 2015). Sometimes, the son may become very demanding. They want to enjoy the same benefits as their friends, unaware of the challenges their friends encounter.

Some of these demands may affect the relationship between a mother and a son (Leman, 2015). If the son’s demands go unmet, he may feel that his mother is not concerned enough to address his needs, just like (he believes) other parents do (Emmen et al., 2013). On the other hand, if a parent sacrifices other important things to meet that one particular need, there is always frustration because the mother has to make an extra effort to earn more income for the family.

Racism and discrimination

Racism affects both single African American mothers and also their adolescent sons for, according to Daryanani, Hamilton, Abramson, and Alloy (2016), despite the gains made in the fight against discrimination, American society is yet to be free from the yoke of racism, and children are not spared. African American children struggle to get admitted to good schools, primarily because of a system that favors Whites over Blacks (Elliott,Brenton, &Powell., 2018). The economic disenfranchisement in the country has also created an environment in which African American adolescent boys find it desirable to engage in drug abuse, drug peddling, and other criminal activities. As a result, they are more likely to interact with law enforcement agencies.

Discrimination is a common challenge that African American adolescent boys have to deal with, especially at school, and these adolescents may have to contend with direct verbal attacks from their peersbecause of their race (Liang, Berger, & Brand, 2019). For those who are parented by single mothers, the experience may often worse, especially among financially challenged groups because the mothers cannot provide all visible symbols of belonging that teenagers enjoy, whether it is a shoe brand or a bit of technology. African Americans earn less and are less likely to get well-paying jobs compared with their White counterparts (Newman & Newman, 2018). These economic realities are among the challenges that a single African American mother must overcome that directly affect their adolescent sons.

Other ethnic groups in terms of stereotypesthat some cultures in the United States rely on can have major implications for African American adolescent boys. One of these common stereotypesyoung African Americans face is that they are drug addicts who tend to use violence to solve disputes (Elliott et al., 2018). According to the researchers, such beliefs often make African American youths more vulnerable to police brutality than White adolescents. Adolescent sons are also likely to face discriminatory verbal attacks, and it is the responsibility of the mother to try to explain to the child that such claims are not true. Such social injustices may be emotionally draining to both the parent and the son (Elliott et al., 2018).

Social injustice in American society may come in different forms, especially for African Americans. According to Daryanani et al. (2016), there have been reports of sexual abuse directed against the vulnerable in the country, and African American adolescents are often the victims. Sexual predators may target victims that they believe lack the capacity to fight back. The systematic discrimination witnessed in the country for over the last three centuries makes African Americans the most vulnerable members of the society and are therefore more prone to sexual predation (Liang et al., 2019). These harsh realities make life difficult for young African Americans.

Inequality in society is a critical issue when discussing the challenges that African American adolescent boys face in the United States. Studies have shown that it is common to find cases where fathers of these children fail to obey court orders in terms of the contributions they should make toward their child’s upkeep (Daryanani et al., 2017). Law enforcement agencies have failed in various cases to ensure that such men obey the law. As a result of economic inequality, these adolescents may not be able to get access the amenities that they need or desire. As such, some mayopt to join criminal gangs.

Wealth

It is necessary to look at how a factor such as wealth plays a role in defining the experience of single African American mothers when parenting their adolescent sons.In American society, the ability of an individual to financially provide for the family is important (Ford & Moore, 2013). Single African American mothers who are financially empowered can meet most of the needs of their children (Emmen et al., 2013).

Whenever they realize their adolescent sons need a mentor, they can easily make arrangements to ensure they can meet the right people who can guide them through life (Ford & Moore, 2013). Such children, although they lack the direct emotional support of a father, lead a relatively normal life. Some single mothers are capable of parenting alone, and there may be a sense of admiration from society.As Stinson (2013) observed, children raised in wealthy neighborhoods are no more or no less likely to show self-discipline and academic successthan do children from poor surroundings.

However, they are offered a better opportunity to facilitate their success. The wealthy single mother may have the occasional emotional pain of having to raise the son alone (Spores, 2013). Nevertheless, there is always a sense of pride and satisfaction when they realize that they are caring for their children without any support. It gives them a sense of overcoming challenges associated with single parenting.

The experience of a low-income single mother is completely different from that of the wealthy mother. Most low-income mothers must take several jobs a day to make ends meet (Doody & Noonan, 2013). They leave early in the morning and come back late at night to ensure they meettheir child’s basic needs. S. Snyder (2016) explained that such parents rarely have time to spend with their children. They believe that providing for their families is their primary responsibility, hoping that teachers will help in offering emotional support to their children. However, teachers may not provide the necessary emotional support and give the personal attention students need, especially in public schools where the population is relatively high, and the pay is poor (Jeynes, 2015).

The neighborhood where such families reside also exposes these children to all manner of dangers. Drug trafficking and abuse, sales of contraband goods, robbery, burglary, and gang-related activities may be found in such areas. Adolescent boy groups are in danger of being affected by gang-related crime (Ford & Moore, 2013). When adolescent boys lack the fatherly guidance they need and are unsupported financially, they find solace in gangs and may begin abusing and smuggling drugs without the knowledge of their parents (Elish-Piper, 2013).

It is disheartening for a single mother to realize that the son she cares for so much is now engaged in criminal activities, for she may have worked for over 13 hours a day to provide for the family. Without the proper interventions, they may join dangerous criminal gangs and commit felonies within the neighborhood (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Once the misguided adolescent joins a gang, he may become entrapped. Some gangs prohibit their members from leaving or betraying the group; once an adolescent becomes a member, their life and that of their loved ones depend on the adolescent’s commitment to the gang (Wang & Kenny, 2014). They cannot leave the group unless arrested for crimes committed if they want to avoid the wrath of the gang.

Poverty

African Americans are deeplyaffected by the problem of poverty; Leech (2016) argued that throughout the history of the United States, African Americans have been disadvantaged. Even after the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, over 150 years later, African Americans do not enjoy the socioeconomic freedom of White citizens (Price & Tayler, 2015). Poverty is a major factor that defines a parent’s experience of the relationship with an adolescent son. Leech (2016) explained that factors such as limited education, lack of entrepreneurial skill, and the existence of systems that discriminate against a part of the American population may lead to their poverty.

Poverty rates show the differences in American population groups. In 2001, White females were the least affected group; only 28.5% of the Whites lived below the poverty line during that time period (Damaske,Bratter, &Frech, 2017). The number of poor single White females has been on the rise consistently since then, to 33.7%. The slight increase is attributed to changing economic forces in the country. However, the problems of single White mothers are not worse than single African American mothers. In 2001, 42.4% of single African American mothers were considered poor. These numbers had increased to 46.2% by2010 (Damaske et al., 2017).

Single African American motherssAmericans were the group most impacted. Although the economic recession from 2007 to 2009affected everyone, single African American mothersweremostimpacted group;S. Snyder (2016) explained that almost half of single African American mothers struggled to provide their families with basic needs. As the population of single mothers continues to increase, the problem will continue to worsen. It is important to note that when these parents struggle to meet the economic needs of their families, their relationships with their sons are affected. At times, they may express their frustrations openly to their children when things fail to work as they hoped.

Disparities in education

Educational disparitiesare isa result of socioeconomic factors.Some of the best educational institutions in the United States give priority to Whites over any other race because racism remains persistent in society. According to J. Brown (2016), the level and quality of education that a child gets may define their ability to succeed in life. The poor continue to suffer because of the system that glorifies the wealthy and the Whites.

Even after struggling to obtain a college certificate; African Americans may find it difficult to find stable jobs in the country (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Employers in some of the Silicon Valley companies highly value the college where an individual graduated (Hutchin, 2013). Some of the top law firms in New York only hire law graduates from Harvard School of Law, Cambridge University, University of Manchester, or other Ivy League colleges.

Disparities in employment

Employment disparity is another major factor that defines the experiences of single African American mothers’ parenting. Full-time employment dropped for the majority of Americans during the recession period from 2007 to 2009 as shown in the statistics in Figure 1, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020 and as cited inDuffin (2020). Whites experienced a drop from 60.7% to 54.5% within that period.

Asians had a consistent increase in the number of those in full employment, from 54.8% in 2001 to 58.3%. Whites have a better education than Blacks have and do not suffer from the same forms of prejudice (Damaske et al., 2017). On the other hand, a significant number of Asians are experts in the field of technology, which make it easy for them to find employment in the country; Asians are less affected by racism compared to African Americans (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015).Single female Asian Americans, in particular, registered improved performance.

The findings show that the rate of absolute poverty in the United States dropped from 30.7% in 2001 to 27.7% in 2010 (Damaske et al., 2017). However, full-time employment for African Americans dropped from 55.8% to 50.4% during the same period of 2001 to 2010 (Damaske et al., 2017). Howard and McInnes (2013) stated that in 2010, unemployment among African Americans increased from 9.7% in 2001 to 13.2 %.

It is important to note that African Americans were the worst affected group, per the statistics presented in the literature. Leech (2016) explained that multiple factors caused the trend. According to Duffin (2020) there was a consistent increase in the number of full time employees in the United States from 1990 to 2008 when the country was hit by recession. From 2008 to 2009, the number of those in full time employment dropped sharply. However, the number has been increasing ever since because of the growing economy.

Juvenile delinquency, an inability to acquire a college education, and racial discrimination were some of the leading factors that caused unemployment (Cooper & McLoyd, 2011). Z. Brown (2016) explained that some African American single mothers are unemployed because of personal reasons, but that does not mean they are at risk of becoming poor. However, many single African American mothers depend on their jobs to earn a living.

The Personal Mother-Child Relationship

The experiences single mothers have with their child can sometimes be defined by the type of relationship they have developed with their sons. S. Snyder (2016) explained that some parents are able to develop a close relationship with their sons based on trust and love. At the adolescent stage, a son may be able to understand some of the challenges the parent encounters to make ends meet, and if so, they may offer emotional support to one another. The understanding son lessens the emotional pain of the mother. Alternately, in a strained relationship, the mother’s and the son’s experience can be frustrating (Dickins, 2014).

If the mother works hard to provide for a son who may not understand and appreciate the effort she is expendingto meet family needs, she may feel stress and resentment. Other factors can also strain relationships, such as the son’s lack of self-discipline, theft, or poor academic performance. Such experiences can be painful if there is no close friend or family to offer proper support to the mother.

Infliction of personal harm is another major concern that should be addressed.Suicide may be a way that some parents believe they can overcome their challenges for, according to Marotz and Kupzyk (2018), suicidal thoughts can emerge in strained environments. When the mother of a young adolescent son realizes that she does not have a lasting solution to the challenges she has to deal with, ending her life may seem to be the only alternative that she has to take Marotz and Kupzyk (2018).

Some single mothers may turn to alcohol or drugs as a way of dealing with the problems that arise from trying to manage an adolescent son. They may feel that society will blame them for poor parenting (Ripley, 2013). Rather than feeling the rebuke for poor parenting, they opt to overcome their emotional stress by consuming alcohol. Excessive alcohol consumption tends to worsen an already bad situation. Initially, substance abuse drains the little resources the family has. Then, the substance abuse habit makes it difficult for a single mother to spend more time at work (Patton, 2017). The extra income for the family vanishes in the process. Financial hardship creates additional problems within a family setting. Such problems often strain the relationship between a single mother and an adolescent son.

Parenting Adolescents

Parenting an adolescent is a challenging task. According to Leech (2016), “Raising an adolescent is one long, often agonizing, exercise in the hardest part of parenting,” (p. 425). It is at this stage of parenting that mothers mayembrace negotiation when instructing children. Teenagers tend to be rebellious at this stage of development. The physiological and psychological changes they experience are often confusing (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

Adolescents need adult support to understand how to cope with these changes, while at the same time, they need their space to make independent decisions. As a result, parents must learn how to guide their children through this complex phase of development in a way that offers adolescents the ability to make independent decisions (Jackson, 2013). Single mothers have to be ready to deal with challenges of upbringingraising an adolescent son.

Parenting an adolescent son poses unique challenges for a single mother. Children often perceive their parents as their role models. A son may grow up wanting to be like his father (Doody & Noonan, 2013). In the case of single mothers, the boyis raised by a single mother, a person he may want to emulate because he is aware of her femaleness. Haefner (2014) explained that the adolescent son faces challenges because he needsafather’s attention to overcome some of the difficulties encountered at this stage of development. Most importantly, these adolescents grow up knowing they have to find a male role model who is not the parent. Single mothers may struggle to guide their sons once the young adolescents perceive that they need a different person, a male person, to offer the guidance they need (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

The parent has to cope with and manage a child’s attitude in order to guide them properly. During the early stages of development, children tend to view their parents as their role models. At the adolescent stage, the child is mature enough to understand the struggles and successes of the parent (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Adolescents may either admire or resent their lifestyle and the choices their parents make based on the values and beliefs they choose.

When adolescents realize their parents do not fit into the perfect person model they want to become, they beginlooking for other role models.As a result, such moments may be the beginning of the rebellion. J. Brown (2016) explained that once adolescents realize they do not want to lead a life similar to that of their parent, they may develop the feeling that the parent cannot advise them on how to work toward success.

Other factors, such as peer pressure, may be present during this stage of development for peer pressure is another serious challenge. As Leech (2016) stated, the moment teenagers fail to find a role model at home, they become susceptible to their friends’ influences. The need to gain acceptance may force them to act in ways that may put their lives, the lives of their loved ones, or their future in danger. Most drug abusers start their habit as an adolescent because of the need to gain acceptance from their colleagues(G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). They experiment with their own behaviors, which may cause strife between them and their families. Such rebellious children may easily become delinquents and face incarceration at a young age, which creates additional challenges(G. Williams & Smalls, 2015).

Without proper guidance, young males can be led astray by others. J. Brown (2016) argued that male members of the society, especially those they view as potential role models, caneasily mislead such adolescents. The desire to learn what it takes to be a man may make adolescents trust the wrong people within their immediate community. Such an experience can be traumatizing, especially if the child makes the wrong choice, regardless of the advice offered by the mother (J. Brown, 2016).

Single Mothers’ Experiences of Their RelationshipsWith Adolescent Sons

African American mothers’ experience of their relationship with their adolescent sons is a topic that has not received significant attention from scholars. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), literature has documented the challenges that single mothers face in the United States. Socioeconomic and emotional challenges are enormous, and, according to Devarakonda (2013), the majority of mothers often avoid engaging in conversations that are focused on discussing the burden they have to bear. However, they do not find it difficult to sharethe positive experiences of their relationship with their sons.

For instance, when the son is disciplined, successful in school, and on the path toward greatness, it brings joy to these single mothers, and they easily share such positive experiences. However, when they have to deal with undisciplined sons who fail to understand the relevance of taking their studies seriously, they do not share the painful experiences with anyone.

They may reprimand such children, but in most cases, they prefer dealing with it on their own. Doody and Noonan (2013) argued that the cause the mother’s behavior is partly from social pressure. Every parent wants the best for their children, and it is not easy to accept that a son is taking the wrong path in life. While literature on these experiences is available, the experience of single African American mothers’ relationships with their sons was not found during the literature review.

Physical experience was one of the important factorsI focused on while conducting my study. According to Dörnyei and Ushioda (2013), a single mother must carry numerous physical burdens. Single mothers must work on a daily basis to ensure meeting the material needs of the family to the best of her capacity (Ford & Moore, 2013), an experience that can become unbearable for a mother who lacks a stable income.

Having two or three jobs a day, six days a week is difficult. Sometimes the physical interaction between the mother and son is minimal. By the time the adolescent son leaves home to go to school each morning, the mother may have already gone to work. Then, when the mother returns home late in the evening, her son is almost asleep. The limited physical interaction makes it difficult for her to understand her son’s issues that he may be facing at school or in his social life.

Discussing the single mother’s experiences of her relationship with her adolescent sons, including the mental and emotional experiences, were important because, according to Wang and Kenny (2014), the mental or emotional experiences that single parents encountered were significantly different from that of two parents. Providing material needs for the family is just one of the many important responsibilities of a parent.

A parent should take time with the adolescent son to understand and address his emotional needs. An African American adolescent may experience racism in various social settings, and it is the parent’s responsibility to assure the child that she will help resolve such situations. However, the time to do that may not be available, and this further strains the mother-son relationship (Farghaly, 2018). The outcome is a parent whobecomes emotionally drained. When racism is experienced by the child,and there is poor communication between the mother and son, the situation they face worsens (Farghaly, 2018). Z. Brown (2016) explained that instead of getting support from her peers, the mother’soutlook may worsen when her peers discuss their family dynamics and talk about how responsibilities were shared, for this increased the sense of loneliness and helplessness among the single mothers.

To address and cope with emotional and financial needs, some single African American mothers may seek spiritual guidance. An African American mother’s religious and spiritual experiences are a source of comfort and help refocus the stress of single parenting. According to Ford and Moore (2013), a single mother may turn to religion as the solace to most of the challenges they encounter. The promise of a better life and a brighter future is always reassuring.

Fusch and Ness (2015) explained that most of the single mothers in their study tended to be religious. However, leaning on their religious beliefs can become frustrating if things continually fail to work as expected. Christian believers are promised a better life if they persevere and hold on to their faith. Christian believers may view the church as their last option in providing proper guidance for their adolescent sons (Guirdham & Guirdham, 2017).

However, at times, church leaders may not understand the unique challenges an adolescent faces. When a mother realizes herson is making wrong decisions, such as engaging in drugs or acting in ways society considers unacceptable, she may become frustrated (Fusch & Ness, 2015). The religious experience they have may change from hope for a brighter future to despair. As a result, a single mother may decideshe can no longer rely on religion to help them her familyovercome their challenges.

The social experiences of single mothers with adolescent sons also tend to be different from that of mothers who are in stable marriages. According to Price and Tayler (2015), American society is slowly accepting divorce as an unavoidable eventuality in some marriages. In the past, society frowned upon women who divorced their husbands. They were subjected to condemnation and blamed for the separation. However, that is changing in modern society (Price & Tayler, 2015).

These changes in attitudes on divorce do not mean that society fully accepts single mothers. Hajar (2016) argued that it is more difficult for a single mother to find a new love interest than it is for a woman of the same age who is childless. The problem is worse when the child is an adolescent son. Hess and Henig (2015) stated that many men avoid getting into a relationship if they have to become a replacement foranother irresponsible man.

He may feel that the adolescent will not offer himthe respect and love that a father would receive. Single mothers may desire to meet a man who respects and loves them; however, they also realize they have an adolescent son who requires care because of the father’s absence. Such experiences can be frustrating and exhausting, and if the woman wishes to be married, she maychoose to marry an older man who is willing to accept her son (Patton, 2017). She considers this to be the only way to find a suitable mate for marriage.

A mother’s love for her child should come naturally and without any conditions. The motivation for everything that they do is love, concern, and a feeling of responsibility. However, in some cases, this experience may be affected by different factors such as parental separation. In the initial stages of the separation, the affection the mother had toward the husband shifts to the son (Patton, 2017). Everything they do may revolve around the son.According to Howard and McInnes (2013), a single mother expects respect and love from her son.

When that is lacking, the level of affection she has toward him may lessen. Although love cannot diminish easily, sometimes frustration may cause her to find it difficult to express affection (Howard & McInnes, 2013). This lack of love may happen because the child becomes disrespectful and unwilling to follow instructions, either at school or at home. Such feelings may leave the mother experiencing guilt and self-blame.

Demographic Differences and Consequences

Single African American mothers experience many struggles while parenting their adolescent sons, and these challengesincludesexand racial differences. According to Barnett and Scaramella (2013), American society treats people of different sexes and races differently. Professionally, females have been successful in the corporate world, and many are now holding senior positions in large companies across the country. However, femalesstill trail males in terms of the ease with which they obtain employment and the salaries earned (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). This issue is found in many social settings such as in the workplace environment.

According to Stinson (2013), most employers prefer working with males than females because of various stereotypical reasons. For instance, there is a common belief that males often perform better than females in assignments thatare physically demanding (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). It is easier for an American male with the same qualifications as a female to get employment in the United States. The salary scale also favors males. According to Z. Brown (2016), “Today, on average, a woman earns 80.5 cents for every dollar a man earns, and women’s median annual earnings are $10,086 less than men’s” (p. 340). The pay disparity means that economically, it is more difficult for a single mother to raise an adolescent son than for a single father to do so.

Economic exploitation is another major concern. J. Brown (2016) observed that single mothers were more vulnerable to economic exploitation. Underpayment is one of the common forms of economic exploitations that these single mothers have to go through because, according to Jeynes (2015), women still get lower essersalaries than their male colleagues who perform similar tasks. The earning gap between males and females in the country has persisted over the years despite the effort made by various stakeholders to address the problem (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Because they lack any other support, females may prefer to remain at their current jobs, even if their salary is lower than their male peers just for the sake of stability.

African American single mothers have a more difficult time accessing education than other women do in society. Jeynes (2015) found that African Americans were less likely to get enroll in the best colleges in the country compared to their White peers who scored the same grades in their final year of college. Institutions of learning in the country remain structured to favor White studentsat the expense of African Americans. Such systems have a significant impact on the economic empowerment of single African American mothers.

A similar trend is notable in the job market. D. Williams, Priest, and Anderson (2016) reported that “in 2015, the hourly pay gap between Blacks and Whites widened to 26.7%, with Whites making an average of $25.22 an hour compared to $18.49 for Blacks” (p. 410). It is a disservice to minoritiesand disheartening to majorities, also, that the more individuals try to fight racism and its negative consequences, the more things seem to remain the same (Fraga, 2016).

The current wage gap is bigger than it was in the past, for Wilson et al. (2016) noted,“almost 40 years ago, in 1979, the wage gap between Blacks and Whites was 18.1%, with Whites earning an inflation-adjusted average of $19.62 an hour and Blacks were earning $16.07 an hour” (p. 198). About 100 years ago, the justification for the wage gap was that African Americans were less educated compared to the White population.

However, that is no longer the case because currently African Americans are just as much educated as Whites. The current wage gap is primarily attributed to racial discrimination. Cahn et al. (2018) observe that most of the American employers tend to offer relatively low wages to Blacks as compared to what they offer Whites. The misguided belief of white supremacy is still an issue in the current American workplace environment.

Concerning the wage gap, Z. Brown (2016) stated that discrimination was one of the leading reasons. The American system highly favors Whites, not just because of their numerical strength in the country, but also the belief they are superior (Hines & Holcomb-McCoy, 2013). A study conducted by J. Brown (2016) found that Blacks do not hesitate to employ Whites. On the other hand, some Whites continue togive Blacks the last priority when hiring or promoting employees. The most unfortunate thing, as explained in Black psychology theory, is that some Blacks have resigned to their fate and have come to believe the fiction that Whites are superior (Doody & Noonan, 2013). For a single African American female raising an adolescent son in this society, all odds are against her, and the experience can be daunting.

Gender and Differences

Gender rolescan also impact the experience of single parenting. According to Ford and Moore (2013), it is more difficult for a single African American woman with an adolescent son to get a committed partner than it is for a man of the same race and in a similar situation to remarry. Cultural factors that deal with gender beliefs may be a factor. The problem is that American society still embraces the belief that a man should be the provider for the family (Doody & Noonan, 2013) and therefore, a woman with an adolescent son is seen to be a double responsibility. On the other hand, a woman may not have a problem having a relationship with a man with an adolescent son because she knows the man will provide for the family.

Single mothers are challenged to meet the needs of her family but also may choose to deal with a complex love life if she wants companionship (Johnsen & Friborg, 2015). Some women are not looking for men to offer them financial support; rather they want someone with whom they can share their life while planning for the future (Wang & Kenny, 2014). However, planning for the future with a partner may have to be sacrificed because of being a mother to adolescent sons.

The presence of a child is often one of the issues that individuals take into consideration when choosing a partner. Leech (2016) explained that some men find it comfortable having a relationship with a woman with an infant so they can instill the right virtues in the child. However, that is not possible for an adolescent. The fear that teenagers will not grant them the respect they deserve as a father figure may drive a man away from a single mother. S. Snyder (2016) noted that out of frustration, some single mothers resort to marrying men twice their age, not because they are in love, but because of the desire to have support.

Level of Discipline and Academic Excellence

Whether the single mother chooses to remain single or remarry, the behavior of her child and his academic performance also impact her experiences. Slonim (2014) explained that although it is challenging to care for an adolescent son, parents are more motivated when they have disciplined and academically intelligent sons. When an adolescent son follows instructions given in school and at home and avoids all forms of trouble, the mother is not so troubled by thoughts thattheymightfind themselves indifficult situations. An adolescent who is a solid academic performer also gives hope to the parent (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015).

Conversely, a mother whose son is challenged academically or socially would have a very different experience.Because education is seen as a demarcation of success, when a son is limited academically, there is the feeling that he will lead the same desperate lifestyle as hispoverty-stricken parents (Hines & Holcomb‐McCoy, 2013). A single mother may lose the hope she needs to parent a child during this delicate stage of development.

Religious Support

Young men and women need to be educated and to learn how to act in social situations, but other social factors help them become successful in life, such support from their religious community.Religious beliefs offer African American women much-needed emotional support (R. Taylor, Chatters, & Brown, 2014). According to Slonim (2014), the number of women who regularly go to church in the United States is almost twice that of men. When parenting an adolescent son, a single mother may have problems offering them the guidance they need to become responsible men (M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016).

They may also lack the capacity to understand what these teenagers experience during this stage of development (Doody & Noonan, 2013). However, church and other religious institutions can be of great assistance in many ways. Among members of the congregation, adolescent boys can find a role model who can guide him as necessary. Many churches offer guidance and counseling services to their members (Hojjat& Moyer, 2017). By offering guidance and counseling, an adolescent son can visit a counselor, minister, or pastor and discuss issues affecting the child’s life at school or home.

The mother of the adolescent can also obtainguidance on how to achieve success as a single parent. Barnett and Scaramella (2013) reported that women who go to church regularly have more successfulexperiences when parenting their teenage sons than those who do not go to church. Other than the emotional support and guidance single mothers get from the congregation and church leaders, they also get a sense of hope.

Women who attend church know they will not receive payment for their hard work while on Earth, but God in heaven will surely reward them (G. Williams & Smalls, 2015). Although that may not make sense to non-believers, such assurances are consoling to Christians. According to their faith, there is a reason they should continue with their struggle, however painful it may seem. Without emotional support, a single mothermnight not overcome the numerous challenges of parenting an adolescent son. Religious support is a factor that defines whether the mother and son will have an amicable relationship.

Single African American mothers’ relationships with their sons may improve when they get proper religious support since, according to Johnsen and Friborg (2015), most local churches, synagogues, and mosques have youth groups designed to guide adolescents at this delicate stage of development. In these groups, adolescents learn how to become responsible sons and members of society. They learn how to control their desires and needs both at home and at school.

Spending time in religious youth groups minimizes chances of the adolescent son engaging in criminal activities. His time may be spent learning Biblical teachings that promote a positive lifestyle and engaging in socially acceptable activities (Jeynes, 2015). The mother may be less worried about the adolescent son. Religious leaders and peers in these groups can also help the son have a proper identity of self. All these factors may improve the experiences of the mother.

Governmental Support

While educational institutions support one aspect of the child’s life, there is also governmental support available. The cost of living in some of the leading cities in the United States is prohibitive. Wang and Kenny (2014) argued that for some low income single African American mothers, the financial burden may be prohibitive. Government-sponsored social and financial support may help ease the pain of parenting a son in such demanding conditions. Public housing is one of the most important social supports these parents need (Wang & Kenny, 2014). This housing may be part of a subsidized community in which individuals pay rent and part of rent on the units is subsidized by the government. This is especially helpful for the single mother so that she can use her earnings for other equally important needs.

The government has also introduced universal health care for all Americans. S. Snyder (2016) explained that the cost of quality health care services in the country is very high. Before the introduction of universal health care plans, many economically challenged families struggled to access medical care; the plans that are now available have assisted many individuals and families (Doody & Noonan, 2013). However, single African American women parenting their adolescent sons in the United States experience great financial difficulty if they do not qualify for these social support services when they are low-income parents.

Direct government support such as subsidized housing and food assistance may lessen the financial burden of parents. However, Embrick (2015) warned that answering the housing challenge, alone,does not necessarily improve a mother’s relationship with her son. Adolescence is a very sensitive stage of development (Feld, 2013), and having a sense of belonging and acceptance among peers is critical to teenagers. A young man’s ego can easily be broken by simple criticism, such as when a peer telling himheis so poor he has to be supported by the government (Signil, 2016). Such statementsremind him of his family’s level of poverty (Guinn, 2014).

An emotionally mature teenage son may ignore such criticism and direct his attention toward what matters most in his life, but that is not always the case (Jonson-Reid, Drake, & Zhou, 2013). During this stage of development, adolescents may tend to blame their parents. The child may decide his family’s poverty is because of a lack of commitment on the part of his parent (Heilbrun, DeMatteo, King, &Filone, 2017). Adolescents may develop the feeling their parent is not doing enough to make it possible for them to have a decent home or living environment. It takes strong support from the child’s mother, his teachers, and his church to help him become a strong, independent, and successful adult.

Synthesis of the Research Findings

The review of the literature centered on the various aspects of single mothers who parent their adolescent sons. One of the factors identified in the literature was the impact of social status on parenting (Wang & Kenny, 2014). The study showed that financially empowered single mothers found it less stressful to care for their adolescent sons than do those mothers who are poor (Drifte, 2014). The ability of single mothers to provide most of the needs of these teenagers made the experiences memorable (Wang & Kenny, 2014). However, poor single mothers find it much more difficult to care for their teenage sons.

Another major factor was racism and its impact on parenting adolescent sons. According to Slonim (2014), the United States has made significant steps in fighting racism in all its forms. However, it continues to be a major problem in the country, for racism affects the education sector, workplace environment, and other social institutions.

The review revealed that single African American mothers face numerous challenges in this society. They find it more difficult to get employment than their Whitepeers who have similar qualifications. Gender was another theme presented in the review (June & Mathis, 2013). The experience of single mothers when parenting adolescent sons is worse than that of single fathers. A single woman will find it more difficult to get a good job in this country than a male peer in the same situation. It is also not easy for single mothers to have successful relationships because many men avoid the burden of caring for their sons (Styron &Styron, 2017).

It is important to note that although I identified and reviewed numerous journal articles and books, a detailed study of the experience of single African American women parenting their adolescent sons was missing (Brock, Dodds, Jarvis, &Olusoga, 2013). This is an indication that further investigation is necessary for this field.

Various theories such as Black psychology theory and family systems theory were reviewed during the search of the literatureto determine how these theories can be applied to gain an understanding of the experiences of single African American female parents in the country. Black psychology theory is used when studyingthe beliefs and attitudes of American society toward African Americans (Devarakonda, 2013). Black psychology theory’s main strength is that it can be employed to explain why it continues to be difficult for African Americans to achieve success in society despite the effort put in place to fight racism.

Family systems theory explains the relationships of family members and the pain experienced when one member of the family is affected by a specific problem (Hines & Holcomb‐McCoy, 2013). Family systems theory was applied to explain why it is easy for an adolescent son to join gangs to earn money when he realizes his mother is struggling to meet basic needs of the family. However, a weakness of this theory is that even with its application, it could did not identify the experiences of single African American female mothers, although family systems theory can be employed to describe experiences from a broad perspective (A. Williams et al., 2017). The two theories were used to describe the diversity of American society and its relevance in defining the relationship between parents and siblings.

The review of the literature provided a review of the experiences of single mothers in the United States. Researchers noted that their experiences were more challenging than that of fathers who had to raise their adolescent children (Hallet, 2016). Challenges of single mothers range from difficulties in meeting financial needs to experiencing problems with finding a committed, long-term partner. I also learned from the literature that African Americans are a disadvantaged minority group because of the social environment of the country. Racism puts them at a disadvantage in terms of education and employment (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

I also noted that single mothers found it more difficult parenting adolescent sons than adolescent daughters. Z. Brown (2016) explained that single mothers prefer having girls to boys, and some even resented raising boys on their own. Although finding literature that accurately discussed the topic comprehensively was challenging, it was possible to gather information from different sources to provide a thorough literature review.

Studies identified in the literature review supported the need to conduct further research to identify the issues and challenges faced by single African American mother concerning their relationships with their adolescent sons. According to Y. Taylor (2016), it was not common for these parents to discuss their negative experiences. Some feared criticism for poor parenting ifthey revealed their relationship was not good (Cherry, Baltag, & Dillon, 2016).

Others felt it was their responsibility to ensure the relationship was at its best (Weatherspoon, 2014). As such, they did not find it comfortable talking about their experiences. The literature review did not provide a detailed explanation of why some single mothers often felt uncomfortable talking about these experiences. However, this study may provide an answer (Promes, 2016). When interviewing the parents, Ilearned the aboutparticipants’relationships with their sons through the one-on-one interview that were conducted. Their responses were used to fill the knowledge gap that existed (Shimazu, Bin, Dollard, and Oakman (2017) called for further research into the challenges faced by single African American mothers because if their reluctance to discuss their difficulties..

Critique of Previous Research Methods

The experience of single African American mothers parenting their adolescent sons is a topic worthy of further study. According to Ford and Moore (2013), some parents end up committing suicide because of the depression from negative parenting experiences. Selecting resources for the study required much care and forethought, and I depended on authors who were reputable scholars and who studied the problem of single parenting, the impact of racism, and the result of income inequality in the United States (Bright & Jonson-Reid, 2015).

Lashleywas a major source for the dissertation since he studies the experience of African American single mothers and the perception the society has toward them. Studies were sought that were conducted by accomplished scholars such as Lashley. It was also necessary to consider the rigor of design, sampling techniques and sample sizes, quality of the instruments of research, the relevance of the statistical procedure, and other related quality factors of the articles before using them in the study (Flavell, 2014).

An appropriate sample size makes it possible to have accurate data. Slonim (2014) explained that a large sample size makes the study more trusting. However, since this was a qualitative study, it was necessary to review other quantitative studies as part of the literature review. Some of the articles used in the dissertation research were based on quantitative research (Wu et al., 2015).

Although some of the investigations occurred over 14 years ago, they were relevant in the present context. S. Snyder (2016) warned that failure to review the relevance and reliability of sources could lead to the collection of misleading information; the scholar also warned against using too few sources when researching a highly sensitive issue, such as the topic of this study (Hooper, 2013). Obtaining peer-reviewed sources from various experts expanded the knowledge and helped to identify possible conflicts in the body of knowledge.

The majority of the researcherswhose works were studied based their conclusions on the findings on primary sources. According to Devarakonda (2013), it is not advisable to rely on secondary sources of information. When conducting research, the focus should always be on addressing the knowledge gap (Hess & Henig, 2015). However, that cannot be achieved by wholly relying on books and articles. One should consider engaging human subjects to understand the current state of a given issue (Elish-Piper, 2013). Engaging and interviewing human subjects may help to identify if anything has changed over the recent past and how it affects the current knowledge. No conflicts regarding the data occurred in this study (Ledgerton, 2013). In addition, I ensured the integration of data collected from participants.

Summary

Single parenting issues can result in societal problems in the United States. Somescholars consider that the increasing numbers of single parents are the result of people who marry with the goal of having children and then parting ways. Being a single parent can be difficult because when the individual raising a child is the single head of household, there is no other adult in the home to rely on for advice and support. Families experience separation for a variety of reasons, and infidelity is considered one of the leading reasons why many couples in the United States divorce. Women’s empowerment, intolerance, heavy use of social media, and the desire to commit to achieving career success are some of the reasons why numbers of single parent homes is increasing.

The researchers studied during the literature review noted that many women suffer while caring for their adolescent sons for several reasons. Other than the financial strain, they find it difficult identifying and openly discussing challenges their sons face in life. Culture limits what they can discuss with their sons. Society is changing, and some of the experiences that women had in the past may be quite different from the experiences of present-day teenagers. Therefore, it was critical to collect data to identify participants’ experiences so that more could be learned about mother-son relationships.

The application of theoretical concepts helped in developing an understanding of the unique situation that single African American mothers experience when parenting their adolescent sons. Black psychology theory was applied when studying the disadvantages that single African American mothers struggle within society. Societal beliefs and practices are unfavorable to women and people of color. Being an African Americanwoman means that she faces a triple bias—the bias against African Americans,the bias against females, and the bias against single mothers with children.

The application of family systems theory was relevant when attempting tostudythe mothers’ experiences of having a relationship with their adolescent sons. Family systems theory refers to a cohesive assembly of interlinked but independent units (Cherry et al., 2016). Each unit is expected to function independently, but in a manner that supports the overall goal of the system. In a family unit, the expectation is that parents and children play their different roles, but in a way that enhances the success and happiness of everyone involved.

For a single mother, meeting all expectations of a parent may not be easy. It may be possible to meet all ofherfamily’s material needs, but in the process of doing so, shemay not have enough time to spend with her child. Such failures may have a significant impact on her child’s normal development. Chapter 3 reviews the literature on this topic and describes the methods used for data collection. The chapter also includes how the data were analyzed.Chapter 4 presents the analysis of data collected from the participants, and Chapter 5 concludes the dissertation and provides findings and recommendations.

Methodology

Chapter 2 described the review of the literature concerning the topic of mother-son relationships. In Chapter 3 there is a detailed discussion of the methods and strategies used to collect and analyze the data. Robinson and Werblow (2013) explained that the fundamental objective of the researcher is to provide new information by addressing the knowledge gap in a given field of study and determining the objective means to conduct the research. During her literature review, I found that there was a gap in information available on how the mother-son relationship is affected when there is a single female head of household.

Because Iwanted to investigate this relationship between a single mother and her adolescent son, it was appropriate to conduct data collection and analysis to understand their experiences. Chapter 3 includes the purpose of the study, the research question and design, and the rationale for the study. The chapter also focused on the sampling strategy and sample size used, and the procedures used to select the participants. I designed a questionnaire that was used to collect data from participants. Chapter 3 concludeswith an explanation ofmy ethical considerations, and a chapter summary is provided.

Purpose of the Study

The methodology section defines the steps taken to collect, analyze, interpret, and present the data collected from theparticipants. Percy et al. (2015) explained that when writing the methodology section, it is important to understand the purpose of the study so that the appropriate method is chosen for the analysis. The purpose of the study was to identify the perceptions of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons.

The expected findings of this study can be used to inform policies relating to parenting in American society. Data from the study may also help to prevent juvenile delinquency if there is increased knowledge concerning some of the root causes of this delinquency. Scholars may learn from the research and design interventions for families to improve mother-son relationships (Barajas, 2011; Roberts, 2011; Robinson &Werblow, 2013).

According to Benner et al. (2016), the experiences of single African American womenwho are parents of adolescent sons have changed because the outside influences on teenagers have changed over the years. This study may be beneficial to the wider community because it focuses on the challenges of parenthood and how single African American mothers can learn new ways to cope with these issues. Scholars and practitionersmaybenefit from this researchbecause it identifies specific issues of interest that relate to the single African American mother-son relationship that can be challenging during the son’s adolescence. As a result, they canapply this knowledgewhen counselingsingle parents who are attempting to overcome difficulties with their children (Robinson &Werblow, 2013).

Research Question

The research question was, “How do single African American mothers experience their relationships with their adolescent sons?”

Research Design

A generic qualitative approach was chosen as the most appropriate research methodfor the study. I found this approach to be suitable for the problem that was investigated because generic qualitative methodology can be used to identify the experiences and perceptions of external phenomena, which, in this research,dealt with African American mothers’ experiences of their relationships with their sons (Kahlke, 2014; Percy et al., 2015).

Inductive reasoning was used (Percy et al., 2015), andI employed this method to analyze the data. Patterns were found from the participants’ responses,and from these patterns, themes emerged that were then synthesized to answer the study’s research question(Percy et al., 2015). Qualitative analysis with inductive reasoningwas considered to be an appropriate way of capturing the experiences and perceptions of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons.According to Percy et al. (2015), semi-structured interviews are appropriate for data collection in a generic qualitative study.

The data collection method was comprised of semi-structured interviews that wereguided by open-ended questions. If I did not find that the participants were touching on the main issues I was investigating, I used follow-up questions to keep participants focused on identifying their experiences (Dworkin, 2012; Irvine et al., 2013; Qu &Dumay, 2011; Rabionet, 2011).

Identifying the appropriate research approachwas critical to ensure alignment with correct assumptions when collecting and analyzing data. According to Fusch and Ness (2015), before selecting the appropriate research approach and research design used in a study, it was important to begin by defining the research philosophy that guided the major assumptions of the study. Doody and Noonan (2013) explained that a research philosophy refers to the beliefs the researcher has about how data of a phenomenon should be gathered, interpreted, and used. A researcher can opt to use positivism, realism, pragmatism, or interpretivism, based on the nature of the study. For this dissertation study, the selection of interpretivism was the most appropriate philosophy.

Interpretivism is a philosophy in social sciences research thatconcerns access to reality to be only through “social constructions, such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments” (Hilal&Alabri, 2013, p. 184). When investigating a phenomenon in society, limiting the researcher to being only an observer who does not integrate and engage participants can diminishtheirability to collect data accurately. These limitations may lead theresearcher to make wrong assumptions because of the lack of physical interaction. Without these limitations, an investigatorcan engage the participants directly, ask for clarifications when necessary, and ensure that an issue is understood as much as possible.

A qualitative approach of research design was chosen because I was aware of the need to identify how and why a phenomenon occurred in the manner it did. In this case, the goal was to identify the experiences of single African American mother’s relationships with their adolescent sons. By using a qualitative method, it was possible for me to chronicle the experiences of these single mothers based on different factors and to identify any variations that emerged based on their experiences.

Inductive reasoning was appropriate for this study because it helped facilitate the use of open-ended questions to conduct an in-depth investigation of the issues at hand as required in qualitative research (Doody & Noonan, 2013). Unlike deductive research, inductive reasoning does not requirethe formulation of the hypothesis (Yanow& Schwartz-Shea, 2014). Instead, it beginswith the development of research goals and objectives. Observations are made based on the research questions and objectives (Doody & Noonan, 2013). The researcher monitors the patterns and considers possible themes before developing a theory or making a conclusion.

Target Population and Sample

Population

The population of my study were single African American motherswho had an adolescent son between the ages of 14 and 19. Various factors have led to an increase in the number of African American single mothers. Although the exact number of African American single mothers may not be easy to predict, recent statistics show that over 70% of African American children were raised by single mothers(M. Cooper & Norcross, 2016).

Identifying the target population was important to enable me to select an appropriate sample. According to Benner et al. (2016), identifying the experiences of single African American women when parenting their adolescent sons required engaging a specific target group. This engagement involved interviewing volunteers to determine if they would be suitable participants.

Sample

According to Dworkin (2012), sample sizes for qualitative studies are usually smaller than quantitative methods. A purposeful sampling method was used; participants were selected according to the inclusion criteria for the study (Creswell, 2012; Palinkas et al., 2015; Suri, 2011). Purposeful sampling was necessary to ensure the selectionof participants for the study that would meet all criteria. The research reached data saturation when eight participants had been interviewed for the study. At that point, the data became repetitive (Dworkin, 2012; Fusch& Ness, 2015; White, Oelke, & Friesen, 2012). When collecting data from a specific group of people, a non-random sampling method was the most appropriate because I wanted specific participants who were African American, who were single mothers, and who had adolescent sons between the ages of 14 and 19.

According to Campbell, Quincy, Osserman, and Pedersen (2013), when an investigation focuses on a large population, sampling becomes necessary. In an academic study, time can be aconsideration that should not be ignored. Completing the study within a specific period was necessary, and I also took into consideration other factors, such as the financial resources needed to conduct the study. The topic was of significant interest to me since single parenting among African American mothers it is an issue that affects many people(Yanow& Schwartz-Shea, 2014). Purposeful sampling wasnecessary to ensure that data were collected within atime frame that would be possible for me to meet.

The age range of the adolescents was specific because during this period, the child undergoes significant physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, and parents often find it difficult to adapt to such changes and adjust their parenting methods (Hahn et al., 2012; Varner &Mandara, 2013). Adolescence may causea strain in relationshipsbetween a mother and her son during this period, and understanding these difficulties is important in order to facilitate ways of developing positiverelationships in the future. In addition, I chose to interview single mothers who had at least one son. Iassumed that since the mother was the single head of household, the mother-son relationship would be sufficiently close. These criteriaalso reduced the heterogeneity of the sample.

When identifying the participants, it was necessary to set inclusion/exclusion criteria that would define those who would take part in the study. My focus was on single African American mothers who had adolescent sons. It was also important to note the place of residence of the targeted population; I only focused on single African American mothers who resided in the United States, since the socioeconomic and political environment in the United States is different from that of other countries. Single mothers who livedelsewherewere excluded because their cultural experienceswere assumed to be different from that of individuals in the United States.Therefore, the participants had to meet the following inclusion criteria:

1. Be a single African American mother between the agesof 27 and 55;
2. Reside with at least one adolescent son between the ages of 14 and 19; and
3. Reside in the U.S.

The following are the exclusion criteria considered when selecting participants in this study:

1. A mother undergoing mental health treatments;
2. A mother who has a history of delinquency;
3. A motherwho is not living with her adolescent sons;
4. A mother who is not living in the United States;
5. A mother who has been divorced for less than one year;

Procedures

The scientific merit of a research project is questionable if a study lacks transparency in the methodological procedures. Outlining the procedures used in collecting data is one of the ways of demonstrating the validity and credibility of the study (Creswell, 2012). Following the correct procedures at every stage of the study is crucial, and that was why it was important to explain the steps taken to gather data from the participants (Creswell, 2012). The procedures beganwith participant selection and ended with the last stage of data analysis.

Participant Selection

Selecting the participantswas critical in this study and therefore it was necessary to develop the appropriate procedures to conduct participant interviews. Purposive sampling with a non-probability approach was the appropriate method for this study for selecting participants based on certain desired characteristics (Creswell, 2012), and was done in specific steps. After receiving permission from the necessary parties, I posted flyers in parks, recreation centers, church bulletins; Facebook posts explained the nature of the research, and I provided a contact number on the flyer. Once volunteers contacted me, they received a detailed explanation of the relevance of the study, as well as the inclusion criteria.

Protection of Participants

Once I began to talk with the volunteers and described the project, it was important for her to assure them of their anonymity. The study was designed to comply with the American Psychological Association Code of Ethics (American Psychological Association, 2016). Approval to conduct the study was sought and obtained by Capella University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). I observed the recommendations made by the IRB in terms of protecting those individuals participating in the study, according to rules set by the Belmont Report (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1979). The participants were informed that their names would not be used at any point and that they had the option to refuse to answer questions that made them feel uncomfortable (American Psychological Association, 2016).In addition, to protect the participants, I did not reveal any personal information to third parties.

Each participant provided signed informed consent forms before taking part in the study. The participants received information that participation was voluntary, that they could skip any question or topic they did not wish to discuss, and that they could stop the interview at any time. Some of the participants stated they could only take part in the study if they received assurance that their identity would be confidential. Rovai, Baker, and Ponton (2013) explained that at times, single parents may feel victimized because of their status; thus, the process of assigning each participant a unique code so that it was impossible for anyone who accessed the raw data to identify the participants (Pachankis et al., 2015).

The protection of participants was a primary concern. There were no risks to the participants orto me since the interviews occurred in a setting I providedprivate area I had received permission to use (Fraga, 2016). According to Lewis (2015), it was critical to ensure participant protection, especially when collecting data on a controversial topic. The topic investigated in this study was not expected to cause emotional pain to the participants, but it was one the single mothers might not want to talk about because of the emotional pain and financial burden they were asked to discuss (Cokley, Awosogba, & Taylor, 2014). Therefore, it was necessary to ensure the participants were protected at each step, from the interview through protection of the data collection.

Data Collection

The first step of the data collection process began when each participant signed consent forms; they were allowed enough time to read, consent, and ask any questions they had concerning the study. Their concerns were addressed to ensure they were comfortable with the questions. All participants understood and agreed that the study was voluntary and confidential. After signing and returning the informed consent, each participant received a $10 gift card. Participants were then asked to complete and return a brief demographic questionnaire.

Before starting the interviews, participants received an alpha-numeric code (i.e., Participant 1, Participant 2, and so on) to maintain their privacy while recording the interviews. Each individual face-to-face interview occurred in a private room in a public organization. During the interview, each participant was audio-recorded, asked 10 open-ended questions, and follow-up questions were asked as needed. The interview responses helped to answer the research question: How do single African American mothers experience their relationships with their adolescent sons?

During the data collection and analysis process, the assigned identification codes allowed meto distinguish between participant’s recordings and transcripts. I transcribed the audio recordings of the interviews and themstored on a password-protected device. After the data were collected and transcribed, the participants were contacted and sent their transcript for review, and they were asked to make any changes they deemed necessary. All participants agreed that their transcripts represented their opinions correctly. The participant’s data were kept in a secure location protected by a word and numerical password known only to me. Also, the data were only used to answer the study research question.

The process of data collection began after obtaining the participant’s consent. As Tricco et al. (2016) observed, data helps to identify elements of the phenomenon. These data were obtained from interviews of single African American females who parented adolescent sons. The qualitative data were collected from participants during personal interviews, conducted either in-person or by telephone.

In-person interviews occurred in a private room in a public organization (such as a local public library, school, or university) that had been booked in advance. Yilmaz (2013) suggestedthat face-to-face interviews were one of the best ways of collecting data, especially in a qualitative study. The physical interaction can create a bond between the researcher and the participants that makes it possible to obtain the needed data (Vaismoradi, Turunen, &Bondas, 2013). However, if participants were unable to attend in-person interviews, telephone interviews were conducted.

Nine participants initially agreed to be interviewed by telephone, and Imailed consent forms to those participants. One participant withdrew before her interview; however, she agreed to send a replacement participant who also met the set inclusion criteria; this ensured that the sample size was within the required threshold.Once the signed consent formswere returned, the interviews began, either by telephone or in person.

Each participant received an alphanumeric code(Participant 1, Participant 2, and so on) to maintain their confidentiality throughout the study. Participants signed an informed consent signifying that they understood that their participation was voluntary, and that they agreed to have their interviews recorded. They were reminded that they could stop their interview at any time and could skip responding to questions that made them uncomfortable.

The interview began when I turned on the audio recording device and gave her name, the participant’s code name, the date, and the time. Each participant was assured of her privacy, andI used casual conversation to put the participant at ease before the interview questions began. The participant was requested to provide responses to the questions but was assured that she was free to add anything she wished to add or believed was important.

Semi-structured interview questions consisted of open-ended questions that kept participants focused on identifying their experiences (Dworkin, 2012; Irvine et al., 2013; Qu &Dumay, 2011; Rabionet, 2011). I made field notes during and after the interview. When the interview concluded, the audio recording stopped, I thanked the participant for the interview,and the participant received a $10 gift card.

Eachinterview lasted approximately one hour. After each interview was over, the recording device was turned off, and the data collection procedure for each participant was concluded. At this time, I made further impression notes about the interview. After I transcribed each audio recording, the participant was emailed a transcript of herinterview. She was asked to review it and return it with comments or revisions. No participants submitted revisions.

All of the data were saved onto a USB flash device.The recordings and mynotes were locked in a file cabinet located in my home office until the end of the 7-year retention period. After the 7-year retention period, the destruction protocol includes shredding documents, and according to Capella University’s IRB requirements, data will be permanently and irreversibly destroyed.

Data Analysis

After collecting data from the participants, the next step was to analyze and interpret the data. Qualitative analysis of data was most appropriate for identifying the experiences of single African American female mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons (Boeren, 2018). Gathering data onthe experiences of participants was critical to determine emerging themes (Creswell, 2012), and the themes discussed in this dissertation emerged that answered the research question.

Data analysis was conducted using a coding method to identify themes in the transcribed data (Campbell et al., 2013; Chenail, 2012; de Casterlé, Gastmans, Bryon, & Denier, 2012; Hilal&Alabri, 2013; Percy et al., 2015; Pierre & Jackson, 2014; Smith & Firth, 2011). The thematic analysis wasappropriate for this generic qualitative study and was inductive and data-driven (Percy et al., 2015). The following steps were part of this thematic analysis:

1. All the transcribed data were read several times.
2. As I listened to the recording of each interview, I highlighted significant words and phrases.
3. The significant words and phrases were assigned codes, such as very brief descriptions of the contents (Percy et al., 2015).
4. The parts of the data that were similar were clustered so that it was possible to find patterns. Each pattern was assigned a label that was relevant to the field of psychology (Percy et al., 2015).
5. The patterns were reviewed, and clusters of patterns became the themes were identified in the data(Campbell et al., 2013; Percy et al., 2015). Descriptors were assigned to themes using terminology relevant to the field of psychology (Percy et al., 2015).Direct quotes from participants were used to provide examples of the patterns and themes.
6. This same procedure was repeated to analyze the data from each participant.
7. The themes were arranged into a matrix, and the corresponding patterns that supported the themes were included (Percy et al., 2015). Codes or descriptors were also used for every data cluster in the matrix (Percy et al., 2015).
8. For every theme in the matrix, a narrative description was written.
9. After the data analysis process was complete, the themes and patterns that emerged from the data were combined and presented in a narrative summary (Percy et al., 2015).

Instruments

As the primary instrument that facilitated data collection in this study, I conducteda literature review and identified gaps in information on single mother and adolescent son relationships. This information helped me to develop the research question for this study. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect the data from the participants and designed the guided interview questions.

The Demographic Instrument

The demographic questionnaire was an instrument that was focused on the demographic background of participants. This questionnaire asked the participant’s name, her age, the number of children in her family, the age of her adolescent son, the reason why she was single, and the number of years she had been single. The second part of the instrument focused on the academic qualifications of the participants.

Yilmaz (2013) explained that highly educated and experienced people are more likely to get well-paying jobs when compared to those who lack similar qualifications. Education can determine a single mother’s financial capacity as she struggles to raise her children (Kitche& Ball, 2014). The last section of the questionnaire focused on specific issues related to the experiences of single African American females when parenting their adolescent sons.

The Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is critical in the study because credibility, dependability, and transferability of the study depend upon the researcher (Patton, 2017). To ensure the transferability of a study, it is paramount that the researcher does not extrapolate the data without its careful analysis and without considering their own biases (Patton, 2017). Finally, the dependability of a study requires careful planning of the steps taken during the study, their accurate execution, and precise description in the final work to ensure other scholars can replicate the study.

As the researcher, I primarily focused on data collection, analysis, and interpretation. It was critical to ensure that I remained objective throughout the data collection and analysis phase. Although I engaged withthe participants, it was essential to recognize and minimize potential researcher bias that might influence the outcome of the study. Nuri, Demirok, and Direktör (2017) explained that at times a researcher might use personal knowledgeto make conclusions that be based on misconceptions and prejudice.

Therefore, it was crucial for me to remain as objective as possible; therefore, I made a list of mypossible preconceptions and referred to the list before asking follow-up questions so that I would remain as unbiased as possible. This list of personal and professional biases included items such as being African American, being a female, and having experience of working as a mental health counselor. This list helped me to avoid biases(Patton, 2017).

During the data analysis process, I withheld judgment; it was critical to make conclusions based only on the data (Percy et al., 2015). The technique of generating and assessing rival conclusions was used (Patton, 2017). The decision to list my biases helped me to suspend these biases during her data analysis. Since I had conducted interviews before, my experience in interviewing, listening, and reflecting on information was critical in eliminating personal biases.

Guiding Interview Questions

The interview instrument included 10 interview questions. Palinkas et al. (2015) explained that an instrument used for collecting data should also capture specific details about participants. When collecting data, it is critical to develop and use guiding interview questions. As Zan and Donegan-Ritter (2014) observed, such questions were meant to standardize the interview process. The guiding interview questions that I developed were based on the research purpose and objectives. The use of these questions ensured that participants answered similar questions to make the analysis process simple.

It was crucial to draft interview questions that would help in collecting data from the participants that would answer the research question. Irvine et al. (2013) explained that by developing questions effectively, the researcherconcentrates on the study and eliminates questions that might lead participants to provide irrelevant information. It was necessary to draft interview questions to identify the experiences necessary for the study. The interview questions used in the data collection process were the following:

1. Tell me about your relationship with your adolescent son.
2. What do you feel influences your relationship with your adolescent son?
3. What comes to mind when you think of a mother/adolescent son relationship?
4. Describe in detail what it is like to experience a relationship with your adolescent son.
5. What do you do to maintain a relationship with your adolescent son?
6. What feelings come to mind when you think about your relationship with your adolescent son?
7. Provide me with examples or stories that will help me understand your relationship with your adolescent son.
8. How do you view the mother/son relationship during adolescence?
9. Is there anything else that you think is important to know in order for me to completely understand how you experience your relationship with your adolescent son?
10. Describe your roles/responsibilities as a single mother to your adolescent son.

Ethical Considerations

Observing ethical concerns is critical in academic research. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), a researcher has a responsibility to observe ethical concerns in the study; as a result, I took several steps to ensure Iconducted an ethical study. First, Isought permission from single African American female parents involved in the study,allowed them to identify their experiences (Bernard, 2013), and explained the nature of the study to the participants. Protecting the identity of the participants was another of my major responsibilities. Yilmaz (2013) explained that some topics might be controversial and that protecting participants from victimization was critical. The participants were assigned code names instead of using their actual names to protect their privacy.

As an academic study, it was also ethically necessary for me to abide by university rules and regulations to conduct my research for the dissertation. Permission to conduct the study was obtained and approved by Capella University’s IRB. The study was conducted by adhering strictly to IRB requirements.

Summary

Chapter 3 described the methodology used to collect, analyze, and interpret data collected from the participants. There were several steps involved in the data collection and analysis process. I defined the purpose of the study before developing the research questions and determined the philosophy I would base her assumptions on that were aligned with the study. Included in Chapter 3were the research approach and design, a description of the target population, and the sampling technique used in the study. The procedure used to collect and analyze data included a description of the instruments used for data collection. Chapter 3 ended with a discussion of ethical considerations observed in this study and writing this dissertation. Chapter 4presents the analysis of the data and Chapter 5 summarizes and interprets the data.

Presentation of the Data

Introduction: The Study and the Researcher

Chapter 3 included a detailed explanation of the method used to collect data and the design I considered to be most appropriate for analysis. In this chapter, the analysis of data is described, and the analysis and interpretation of raw data collected from the study participants are presented. This chapter addresses the research gap identified during the review of the literature by presenting data gathered from the interviews. Chapter 4 includes a discussion of the study and a description of the sample. The research methodology applied to the data analysis, a presentation of data analysis and results of the analysis, and the summary of the study are included. This generic qualitative research study was an investigation of eight single African American mothers’ relationships with their sons between the ages of 14 and 19, and how these relationships developed over time.

The Researcher

Because of my personal and professional experiences with single African American mothers, I was particularly interested in this topic. I had been born and raised in a single-mother household, and throughout my life, I resided in neighborhoods that were predominantly led by single mothers who were the heads of their households. My family dynamic consisted of re-occurring generations of single parents.

As a licensed mental health professional in the local community, I work with a large number of the population requiring services including single mothers and their children. My aimin this dissertationwas to provide relevant and valuable information that would lead to improved life outcomes of sons raised by single mothers, such as preventing juvenile delinquency or increasing their academic success.

To accomplish this, Iidentified findings that would help psychologists, social workers, educators, and practitioners gain a better understanding of family dynamics, and I wanted to design interventions for these families to improve mother-son relationships. During my review of the literature on the topic, there was a gap in the literature related to African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. I gained insight by holding in-depth interviews with single mothers. Conducting this research study offered these single African American mothers an opportunity to share their voices and their experiences.

This study was begun with my prior knowledge of single-parent households, since I was raised in a single-parent family. Therefore, it was necessary to identify any personal biases that could arise and mitigate any personal interest in the research question. Throughout the interviews, I checked my biases and opinions by using journaling to monitor questions and responses. The purpose of note-taking was a way of recording my biases, feelings, or thoughts that might skew the investigation. It was also critical forme to build a trusting and understanding relationship with each participant.

Aiding in my inquiry was my background, training, and experience conducting qualitative research methods and data analysis procedures through the Capella University classwork curriculum. I conducted a thorough literature review related to the study population and theories to determine the course of my investigation. Thematic analysis was the appropriate analysis for this study and required knowledge of this process (Percy et al., 2015). An essential aspect of this study was the ability to listen and interpret the information shared by participants and to learn from the supervision of the university faculty committee members who provided doctoral research guidance.

Description of the Sample

The sample was comprised of eight single African American mothers, and their demographics are presented in Table 1. The number of participants was considered adequate to provide the needed data for the study, and data saturation was reached (Dworkin, 2012; Fusch& Ness, 2015; White et al., 2012). Data saturation occurs when researchers find that they do not need further interviews to get new information for their data (Given, 2008). I achieved data saturation with my eighth participant; at this time, the themes emerging from the African American mothers’ interviews began to re-occur, and it was evident that further studies would present similar findings. The data sufficiently described the phenomenon of interest and answered the research question for the study.

Table 1. Description of Sample.

Participant 1

Participant 1 was an African American woman who had several children, including her adolescent son. At the time of the interview, she had been a single mother for over a decade. The participant also shared, “My son was always very close to me from the beginning.”She shared that her son’s father had passed away and mentioned, “What I believe influenced our relationship or drew us closer to one another is when his dad passed away.”

Participant 2

Participant 2 was an African American woman who had more than one child; one of them was her adolescent son. She had been a single mother to her adolescent son for several years, prior to our interview.At the time of the interview, she revealed thatshe had not received support from her son’s father for several years and therefore had to meet all the needs of her son alone. Participant 2 offered, “The relationship between my son and I feel distant because I spent a lot of time working trying to provide for him.”

Participant 3

Participant 3 was an African American woman with several children, including her adolescent son. At the time of the interview, she had been a single mother for over a decade due to separation. She stated, “My relationship with my adolescent son has been somewhat difficult, and he has become rebellious. I am playing both roles, mom and dad, but it is not good enough for him because he is searching for the love of his father.”

Participant 4

Participant 4 was an African American woman with one adolescent son. At the time of the interview, she had been a single mother for over a decade due to separation. This participant noted that she was bothered by the absence of the son’s father, but she believes her son will overcome the challenge. Participant 4 described having a closeness with her son. She stated, “There is a closeness that he and I have that nobody else can have.”

Participant 5

Participant 5 was an African American woman with several children, including her adolescent son. She had been a single mother to her adolescent son for several years due to separation, prior to my interview with her. This participant noted that she is doing well financially, and she is meeting the needs of the family. She also said, “It’s imperative that my son knows that he is loved someone cares for him, and that I am rooting for him.”

Participant 6

Participant 6 was an African American woman with more than one child, including her adolescent son. At the time of the interview, she had been a single mother for almost two decades.She had a stable job and owned a nonprofit organization geared toward helping the less fortunate. Participant 6 explained, “My son is my whole world; everything revolves around him.”

Participant 7

Participant 7 was an African American woman with one adolescent son. She had been a single mother to her adolescent son for over one decade due to divorce, prior to the interview.This participant noted that she was employed, and one of her priorities was to provide for her son. Participant 7 said, “My role is to make sure he has a roof over his head, food to eat, and that he knows right from wrong.” She also shared, “I have warm feelings when I think about our relationship; it’s like nothing but love.”

Participant 8

Participant 8 was an African American womanwith several children, including her adolescent son. She had been a single mother to her adolescent son for over onedecade before the interview. During her conversation with the interviewer, she said she was never married to her son’s father. Participant 8 shared, “My son and I have a good relationship. We have mother-son days, one day out of the week: it’s just him and I.”

Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis

Thematic analysis methodology, as developed by Percy et al. (2015), was chosen for this generic qualitative study. Data analysis included using coding and identification of patterns to determine the themes in the transcribed data (Percy et al., 2015). This methodology was used to analyze the qualitative data obtained from participant interviews. Thematic analysis was appropriate because it made it possible for me to identify specific issues related to single African American mothers’ experiences of their relationship with their adolescent sons.

Thematic analysis was used in the study to identify similar patterns from the data and for determining the themes that I found in the data gathered from the interviews.Thematic analysis was conducted by reviewing the data in several steps (Percy et al., 2015). I did the following:

1. familiarized myself with the data collected,
2. observed and provided meaning to the data or initial codes,
3. determined relevant themes,
4. reviewed the themes,
5. defined and named the themes,
6. used the themes for describing the research question, and
7. formed a composite synthesis.

After obtaining data from the participants, I searched for specific information on the phenomena based on the responses and justifications provided by participants.

After reading the interview transcripts from each participant for familiarity,I reviewed the data, and then re-read the transcripts and outlined any relevant paragraph, phrases, and sentences relating to the topic of interest. I copied the relevant information into a separate document to save for further analysis. The data not related to the topic were kept in a separate document and saved in a different folder. The relevant data were used to identify similar phrases or patterns, coded each of the highlighted items, and I assigned a phrase to represent a set of data with similar patterns. All the recurring phrases and patterns were then coded to identify emerging themes that helped to answer the research question. I then provided a description of the identified themes in alignment with the research question.

Challenges During Data Collection

When collecting data, I faced challenges that should be discussed. One of the challenges that affected the process was securing participants for the interviews and scheduling their interview time and dates. Several participants who agreed to participate in the investigation were unavailable on the appointment dates. I rescheduled these meetings to ensure their participation. Participant 2 rescheduled twice because she had no available childcare.

Participants 3 and 8 rescheduled due to changes in work schedules or working overtime. One participant withdrew before her interview; however, she agreed to send a replacement participant who also met the set inclusion criteria; this ensured that the sample size was within the required threshold. In addition, the interview process took longer than I had expected because participants needed time to provide the necessary information and schedule missed their interviews. However, despite these challenges, Iheld one-on-one interviews.

Presentation of Data and Results of the Analysis

A generic qualitative approach (Percy et al., 2015)was appropriate since the goal of the study was to identify the personal perceptions and experiences of participants. Percy et al. (2015) argued that this approach is appropriate when it is necessary to go beyond providing statistics. The objective was to identify the perceptions of participants and how these relationships developed over time. These findings can provide knowledge that may improve the life outcomes of young men by helping to prevent juvenile delinquency and to increase the potential for academic success.

Insights from the data analysis may allow for the discovery of important aspects of Black psychology and family systems theory by identifying findings based on participants’ relationships and by determining how the participants experienced these relationships. Study findings may help psychologists and social workers design interventions that may be beneficial to mother-son relationships in similar families.

The practical implications for Black psychology and family systems theory may be used to fill a gap in the professional knowledge by informing the field about how relationships in an African American family develop. Such information might be useful for educators who deal with single-parent families. Study findings may be useful to help practitioners understand the family dynamics of this population and to assist them with formulating educational strategies for children of single African American mothers. I found that most of the mothers experienced a close relationship with their sons and were fully committed to parental roles and responsibilities, despite the racism, discrimination, and emotional challenges they encountered.

Initial Coding

Coding was manually performed by highlighting segments of transcribed text. Codes were created and connected with recurring patterns such as ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. After coding was established, I identified patterns, and the themes emerged from the thematic analysis process. For example, “There is a closeness that he and I have that nobody else can have,” and “My son is my whole world; everything revolves around him,” and “I have warm feelings when I think about our relationship, it’s nothing but love. We have a very close bond” were clustered into a theme that identified closeness between the single mothers and their sons. These repeated patterns were related to the mother-son bond and demonstrated a collective experience in which each participant similarly described closeness with their sons.

Patterns

The coding process helped to identify patterns that explained the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons. These patterns were used to generate appropriate themes for the study. Seventeen patterns were found from the coding process, and these patterns were grouped into four themes that were arranged in tabular form by linking the themes to their corresponding patterns. In each theme, I provided a detailed analysis that described the scope and substance that the theme presented.

Presented in Table 2 are 17 patterns that emerged from coding and reflected the responses given by each participant.

Table 2. Patterns.

Themes

To identify relevant themes from the data collected through interviews, I began by becoming familiarizedingfamiliarizing withreviewing the responses given by each participant. I Shereviewed each interview transcript and highlighted common phrases appearing across the transcripts. The coding process was done by connecting common phrases or patterns and assigning similar codes across interviews. Based on the coding process, four themes were identified from the responses given by the participants:

1. the mother-son bond,
2. perception of parental role and responsibility,
3. emotional challenges, and
4. racism and discrimination (see Table 3).

Table 3. Themes.

Theme 1: Mother-son bond

The mother-son bond refers to the process of creating a deep-rooted interpersonal relationship between a mother and her child. This theme emerged as the mothersdescribed the development of the relationship with their sons over an extended time. They described their mother-son bond as a broad concept that can be characterized by closeness, affection, spending quality time, having open communication, admiration, and feelings of pride. Each mother perceived effective bonding as an opportunity to connect on a deeper level with their sons, while simultaneously developing a healthy and secure attachment within their relationship.

Closeness

Participant 1 expressed,“My son was always very close to me from the beginning.” The majority of the mothers achieved a close relationship with their sons, and they will not allow anything to interfere or come in between their relationships. Participant 4 described having an indescribable closeness with her son:

All I can tell you it is like nothing you can really describe. There is a closeness that he and I have that nobody else can have. My son knows that nothing is going to come between him and I.

Participant 6 expressed similar a closeness, her son is her primary focus in life, and they work together as a team. She said, “My son is my whole world; everything revolves around him. We are so close, we always support each other as a team, and no one comes in between us or interferes.” Participant 7 shared a similar experience. She stated, “I have warm feelings when I think about our relationship; it’s like nothing but love. We have a very close bond.”

Conversely, a small number of participants struggled to develop close mother-son relationships for two reasons,

• limited parent-child interaction due to mothers having to provide financially for their entire family, and
• financially, the sons strongly desired the presence of an absent father.

Participant 2 explained, “The relationship between my son and I feel distant because I spent a lot of time working trying to provide for him, and he spent a lot of time with his grandmother.” Participant 3 mentionedher son desired a relationship with the absent father,which caused him to becomedisobedient toward her:

My relationship with my adolescent son has been somewhat difficult, and he has become rebellious. The relationship has been very rocky. I am playing both roles, mom and dad, but it is not good enough for him because he is searching for the love of his father.

Participant 3 added, despite the challenges of developing a close mother-son relationship, she continued to desire closeness with her son. “I have a desire to have a strong relationship with my child.” Participant 2 echoed this experience.

Affection

Some mothers described their affection as a form of love or fondness experienced when caring for their sons. Participants perceived their affection as an approach to developing a sense of confidence and esteem within the mother-son relationship.The mothers frequently verbalize that they giveaffection both emotionally and physically to their sons. Participant 2 explained that she is intentional in giving her son affection in various manners.

I talk to him often; I give him hugs and kisses. I check on him throughout the day. When I come home from work, I ask him how his day was in school, and if he has any issues at that time, I will try to resolve them.

Participant 6 shared “I tell my son that I love him, I hug him a lot, give him kisses.”Participant 1, Participant 5, Participant 8 echoed this experience. Participant 1 mentioned that she gave a different type of affection depending upon the gender of her child, and she felt the need to be attentive to her son. “I am attentive to my son, but I take care or parent my son a little different from my daughters. I have to be both a disciplinarian and nurturer.”Participant 5 verbalize,described how she gave her son positive affirmation and reassurance. She shared, “Anytime his intelligence is called into question by anyone, I remind him that he is, in fact, intelligent” Participant 1, Participant 4, and Participant 7 echoed this experience.

Quality time

A number of the mothers expressed that they made themselves available to ensure they spent quality time with their sons. Participants explained that spending quality time with their sons gave them the opportunities to develop a deeper connection by getting to know each other through their mother-son relationship. Some participants shared that quality time also helped to build valuable trust.According to Participant 8, she designates time out of the week to spend quality time with her son on an individual basis, “We have mother-son days, one day out of the week: it’s just him and I.” Participant 7 also mentioned, “Once a month we choose fun activities to do together.”Many participants made an effort to get involved in their son’s interests or activities, even if it was not a shared interest between both parties. Participant 6 explained,

He likes to lie in bed with me to watch movies together. I will try to throw the football with him or play basketball in the park with him. I will try my best to do these activities; however, I am not that good at sports. Most importantly, I like to do whatever makes him comfortable.

Participants1 and4described similar experiences.

Open communication

Each mother focused on developing open communication and identified this as an important element of effective conflict resolution as a way of developing a healthy relationship over time with their sons. The mothers verbalized that they made themselves approachable and created a space for their son to communicate their feelings and concerns openly. Some mothers expressed that if their sons had a problem, they would collaborate to find a solution to his problem. The women talked about open communication as a collective experience between mother and son.

Participant 3 described communication as being open and honest because she wanted her son to confide in her about everything. “As a mom, you want to be that person he confides in, whether it is good or bad. I try to maintain a level head; I talk to him often; I try to be open and honest.” Participant 4 explained that open communication is essential, and at times she likes to use her resources to seek advice from other parents and adults to ensure that she appropriately addressed specific topics with her son. She stated, “Communication is really important because he is one of those kids that’s curious about everything.

I would seek outside advice from others and ask them how they would go about talking or answering questions about particular [topics].” Participant 6 explained it is importantto be able to have open discussions with her son about sensitive matters. She stated, “We have conversations about sex or the birds and bees…. How he should treat girls. I enforce the importance of using protection during sex. We also talked about him trying to lessen sexual contact as much as possible.”Participant 8 expressed setting aside time at dinner to openly communicate with her son by allowing him to voice his opinions and work toward a solution to any problems that may occur:

We have dinner at the table, and we talk about everything. We talk until we find solutions to whatever problem he may have. Open communication is the key, he could tell me how he feels, and I could tell him how I feel. We try to work towards a solution.

Participant 7 also shared the importance of discussing various topics, and they both get an opportunity to verbalize their different perspectives: “We generally spend time at a restaurant; we sit, and we talk about different subjects. We discuss his perspective as a child versus my perspective as a parent.”Participant 1 and Participant 5 shared similar experiences.

Admiration and pride

Some mothers were pleased to discuss the admiration their sons had for them,and they worked hard to maintain these images of courage and strengthto reassure their son,while simultaneouslymasking their negative emotions such as fear and stress. Participant 1 shared, “I am his superwoman. To the end of time, I am going to keep that image up for him no matter what I feel like.”Participant 6 also described her determination to maintain an image of strength; she never reveals to her son when she feels weak because she does not want to worry him.

My son always tells me that I am Super-mom. He thinks I can fix everything and that I have the answer or solution to every problem. I have weak moments, but I do not allow him to see them because I am his Super-mom.

Participant 5 discussed having similar experiences with her son.

Some mothers’ verbalized pride associated with the accomplishments of their son. They perceived pride asa sense ofsatisfaction and celebrating their son’s success. Participant 4 was proud of her son’s growth and development. “I am very proud of the person he has become, and I have seen him transform from a caterpillar into a butterfly. He inspires me every day to get up and do something different.” Participant 7 shared a similar experience; she was proud of her son because he is well behaved, proactive, intelligent, responsible, and dedicated to his goals. They mutually respected one another:

He is a good young man. He is proactive, smart, and dedicated if he puts his mind to achieve a goal. He respects me, and I respect him. He has shown me the responsible man that he is becoming.

Participant 8 discussed having similar experiences with her son.

Participant 5 expressed that her son respected her highly, and he did not want to disappoint his mother.“One day he said to me what I think every parent wants to hear from their child. My son said, ‘Mom, my greatest fear is that you would ever be disappointed in me.” The results of the study indicated that a significant amount of African American mothers developed a close and affectionate relationship with their sons.

Theme 2: Perceptions of parental roles and responsibilities

The perception of parental role and responsibility refers to an individual’s actions as a parent, for she makes important decisions about the care and upbringing of her child. This theme emerged when mothersdescribed their daily parenting practices that influenced the growth and development of their sons. The participantsdescribed their perceptions of parental role and responsibility as a broad concept that can be characterized by providing, protecting, supporting, giving guidance, establishing necessary boundaries, and maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities.Each mother considered effective parenting to an opportunity to nurture their sons to become productive adults, while simultaneously developing a healthy mother-son relationship.

Financial support

All participantsshared their willingness to make the necessary sacrifices to provide financially for their families. A significant amount of African American mothers in this study had stable jobs or careers. According to the demographic questionnaire, the results indicated that the majority of the participants received a secondary education.Participant 6 shared a determination to provide financially by any means necessary, “I must provide, and I will do whatever it takes to take care of my child.” Participant 1 discussed similar experiences. Participant 5 explained she ensured that he received an education, she provides financially, and provides any other necessities that he needs, as well: “I ensured that he went to school, and I provided those things he needed.”Participant 7 discussed similar experiences.

Conversely, a small number of mothers struggled financially; however, all were committed to their responsibilities. Participant 3 discussed having to maintain multiple job placements to provide financiallyas a single parent, “I go to work every day, working two and three jobs to provide.”Participant 2 expressed she provides financially for the family as a single parent. However, her work schedule sometimes prohibits her from attending her son’s sporting events that she desires to attend, “I am doing my best, I go to work because I need to be able to provide for him and his brother. Sometimes, I cannot make it to his football or basketball games, but I definitely try my best.”

A very small number of mothers had an opportunity to receive support from their extended family. Participant 4 mentioned:

I never had any issues with the lack of childcare because there was always a family member that could take care of him when I had to go to school or work. I never had any issues with not having enough food for him, and if I did not have something we needed, another family member was going to make sure we received whatever we needed at that time. It is important for me to have my village, for lack of a better term.

Protection

The participants explained that protecting their son in various manners was a critical part of their role as a parent.Participant 1 shared, “I am not going to let anybody harm him…. I’m going to protect my son no matter, I would literally lie down life for him.” Participant 6 discussed the same experience, “I have to always protect my son because I am not one to back down, and I will fight to the death for my son.” Participant 3 added her son’s safety is her first priority, “I was not going to allow myself to stay in a relationship where my son was going to be put in harm’s way.”Participants 2, 5, 7, and 8 discussed similar experiences.

Support

Each mother mentioned that they support their sons in various ways, including emotionally, socially, physically, and educationally, to the best of their ability. Participants perceived supporting their sons as an effective approach to secure attachment within the mother-son relationship.Participant 1 explained she is her son’s biggest support system. The mother’s goal is to ensure that he is healthy emotionally, mentally and financially literate. Also, she would like him to become a productive individual with good morals and values:

My goal was to make sure he becomes a productive adult. I would like him to be financially, emotionally, and mentally stable. In addition to that, I would like him to have good morals and values. He knows that I am his biggest cheerleader, and I’m going to support him.

Participant 5 also shared the importance of making her son aware that he is loved and supported, “It’s imperative that my son knows that he is loved, someone cares for him, and that I am rooting for him.” Participants 2, 3, 4, 7, and8 shared similar experiences.

Participant 6 supported her son’s overall health and fitness. “I make sure he goes out and exercise. I cook healthy meals because I do not want to have a child with diabetes or anything else.”She also mentioned that she enrolled her son into a private school to receive a quality education. “I enrolled my son into private school because the education level is different versus public school. My son gets more help from his teachers, and he is in smaller classroom settings.”

Guidance

Each mother statedthat they gave sons guidance within the home, school, and community setting. The mothers expressed they were the primary source of instilling good morals and values within the home setting.Participant 5 mentioned, “When it came to his standards and values in life, I wanted to be the chief in that area.” The single mothers perceived that guiding their sons was an effective approach to developing a positive and mutually respectful relationship.Participant 2 shared an experience that was echoed by other participants.

Guidance for her meantinstillinggood values into her son and reinforcing positive decision-making skills. “I want to be the mom that instills good values in my son. I wanted him to understand right from wrong completely.” Participant 4 discussed the importance of giving her son the knowledge she has that will help him to become a productive individual in society. She commented, “The biggest thing is helping him to understand how to move forward in life and how to become a part of society, at large.”

The mothers used different types of additional support systems, such as local mentoring programs, and placing their sons in a healthy environment to reinforce positive behavior. Participant 1 said, “I had to figure out a strategy to place him in an environment with good productive people. I decided to enroll him in a mentoring program.” Participant 8 explained thatshe kept him involved in activities and surrounded by positive influences. She ensured he was well behaved and displayed good manners when he is in the community: “I always try to keep him busy and around positive people. I wanted to make sure he knows how to behave well when he is in public places.” Participants 3 voiced similar experiences.

Some mothers gave spiritual or religious guidance.The mothers felt that their spirituality belief system empowered their parenting practices; it gave them a sense of guidance, hope, strength, support, and protection. Participant 5 explained she uses her spirituality to support and guide her parenting practices. She wanted to be a good example for her son, but she wanted to give defined expectations for her son’s life. “My spiritual belief in God influenced my parenting style. I wanted to practice what I was preaching, and I set examples for him as I learned myself.

I did not want to send my son mixed messages.”Participant 1 voiced similar experiences.Shesaidthat her belief system assisted her in setting moral standards and to shape the faith identity of her son.Some of the participants engaged in church services, other religious activities, and Christian schools. Participant 3 added, “Since he was a baby, he has been attending church.”

Participant 7 stated she taught her son good morals and values. She also took him to church to reinforce what she was already teaching him. “I take my son to church…. I taught him not to lie, steal, and cheat.” Participant 2 voiced similar experiences.Participant 6 shared that in addition to her taking her son to church, she also felt a need to enroll him into a Christian school: “I take him to church every Sunday, and he goes to a Christian religious school.” Some considered it a part of their parental roles to pass on their faith practices to provide directions to sons and a strong foundation.

Establishing boundaries

The mothersexplained that establishing healthy boundaries was essential to develop a healthy relationship. Participant 4 explained, “We set different boundaries as new issues arose, and boundaries were put in place to avoid him from behaving inappropriately.” She added, “I always reinforce boundaries.”The mothers defined the role of the child and their role as the parent to provide reassurance and promote mutual respect. Participant 5 mentioned she established clear rules for his conduct, “I was very strict, rules were established, and I was not dogmatic. I ensured that my son understood me and that it was clear to him that there are consequences for his actions.”Participants 1, 3, and 7 shared similar experiences.

Participant 6explained she wanted to ensure that shedid not burden her son withher challenges, especially her parental responsibilities. She stated,“I let him know that he is not the man of the house. He needed to know that he is a child, and he needs to learn to enjoy his childhood.”Participant 8 mentioned that “I am always a mother first and not his friend.” Participants 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 shared similar experiences.The mothers shared their responsibility to establish boundaries, set rules and guidelines, and to reinforce mutual respect. A number of the mothers stated they were “always a mother first and not his friend.” They believed that a “mother’s love” is irreplaceable, for a mother should always have her child’s best interest at hand.

Maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities

Each mother explained the significance of maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities within the mother-son relationship to make certain all of their sons’ needs were met. The participants explained that maintaining various roles and responsibilities for their sons was an effective approach to developing a strong sense of security and a healthy mother-son relationship. Participant 1 said ,“I had to wear a lot of hats; it is imperative that I am a protector, provider, nurturer and disciplinarian. I did this to make sure that I met the needs of my son in every area.”She admitted that “wearing many hats” was pressure, and at times, frightening as a single parent, “I was scared. I had to wear many hats as a single mom.” Participant 2 echoed this sentiment, “I have a lot of roles and different responsibilities as a single mom. I have to wear many hats to help my child.” Participant 4 explained,

I had to wear so many hats because I am not a father, but I am his mom. I had to be stern when needed, loving at all times, I had to say “no” if I felt something was not in his best interest.

Participant 3 added, “You have countless roles and responsibilities. As a single mom, you have to wear many hats to help your child.”Participant 6 and Participant 7 shared similar experiences.Some of the mothers shared that “wearing many hats” caused them to become weary as a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone. Despite the absence of the fathers, mothers felt dedicated and committed to their roles and responsibilities, with the hope that their sons would transition from an adolescent into a productive adult.It was evident that all mothers in the study perceived that their parental roles and responsibilitiesinfluenced theiroverall experience.

Theme 3: Emotional challenges

Single motherhood comes with a distinctive set of emotional challenges that are best described by the women who have experienced them. This theme emerged as mothers discussed the various challenges that left them with feelings of anger, frustration, inadequacy, and fear.

Anger and Frustration

A small numberof mothers felt angry that their son’s father was not present to assist in parenting their son, which caused them to become frustrated in some cases. Participant 6 felt anger due to the father’s absence in their son’s life. She stated, “I was angry, his father and I were married, we had this child together, and then he decided that he could not stop doing drugs for the sake of his family.” Participant 3 shared similar experiences:

My son has become very angry and bitter due to the simple fact his dad is not present in his life, which has put a strain on our relationship. I am bitter as well because I am raising my son alone.

Some mother’s felt responsibilities caused them to become drained as a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone, which caused them frustration. Participant 2 shared, “If one parent has to raise a child by themselves, it is difficult and draining.” Participant 6 added, “I did not conceive my son alone, and I expected his dad to help me parent him. I am tired, but I do not have the luxury of being tired.” Participant 3 shared similar experiences.

Inadequacy

Each mother felt that both the role of the mother and father were equally vital to their son’s growth and development. Participant 6 said, “I am worried that… maybe it is something that I am not giving him, as his dad would be able to give him.” A small number of mothers felt a sense of inadequacy associated with relating to their male child. These mothers believed that if a father or male role modelwere present, he could have provided their sons with a fatherly perspective, and the sons could potentially better relate to a father figure about male-driven topics or situations. Participant 2 shared the following:

I feel my son needs a father or man role model present because I cannot teach him everything he needs to know about being a male. A man can teach him about sports, how to be tough, and so on. I can only teach him what I was taught growing up and my perspective as a woman.

Participant 3 believed that her son feels that his father could understand him better than she could, although she does not have any evidence:

It is hard as a mom because your son is going through his adolescent stage, my son is developing into a young man, there is probably a lot on his mind that he is not willing to discuss with me because he feels I will not be able to understand or help him as a mother.

Conversely, the majority of mothers felt that there are male-driven topics or situations, that they could not explain in the same manner as a father figure would explain them, however, this does not affect their ability to raise their sons to become phenomenal men. Participant 5 explained:

There are some things I may not be able to explain to him as a father or male would, but overall, I do not think that has anything to do with my abilities to raise him to be a successful, and phenomenal Black man.

Participants 1, 4, 6, 7, and8 shared similar experiences.

Fear

A small number of mothershad a fear of their sons being influenced by negative individuals or misled by society. Participant 3 stated, “I do not want him to be influenced by negative people or misled by society.” Participant 8 shared similar experiences.

A significant number of mothers shared fear of son becoming a victim of police led-violence. Participant 1 noted, “I have fear because my son is a Black male. I worry about my son encountering police.”Participants 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 shared similar experiences. It was evident the mothers experienced at set of emotional challenges that influenced their experience.

Theme 4. Racism and discrimination

The single mothers discussed their continuous effort to protect their sons from racism and discrimination. The effects of racism and discrimination were far-reaching when it comes to African American mothers’ psychological health and their relationship with sons, according to the mothers in the study. This theme emerged when mothers discussedthat they worried about their sons being stereotyped and falsely accused of crimes or being victims ofsocial injustice and inequality.The participants in this study explained that they lived in fear that their sons might be harmed by police-led violence.

Stereotyped and being falsely accused

A small number of the mothers described instances when their sons were stereotyped; as a result, the boys were falsely accused of a crime they did not commit, and there was no probable cause for the accusations. Participant 1 experienced her son being stereotyped; he wasfalsely accused of a crime.

One day a police officer came to my home and made a false accusation that my son had committed a crime in the neighborhood. The police officer threatened to come into our home and drag my son outside. I had to become the protector for my son, no matter whether or not the police officer took me to jail. As I stood firm at the front door of our home, I said “Oh no! He is a minor, and you will not drag this Black child out of our home; over my dead body.”

Participant 6 shared a similar experience. She explainedthather son was alsofalsely accused of a crime.Although he was respectful and cooperativewith the police, her son wasstill handcuffed and forced to lie face down outside on the ground in dirt. She also noted that she filed a written formal complaint with higher authorities against the police officer as a result ofthe injustice.

My son was playing with his friends at the local park, and the police accused my son of a crime that he did not commit. Although my son was respectful to the police, he tried to explain to [the police] what happened, and that he did not have anything to do with the crime. The police put my baby in handcuffs and made him lie face down on the ground in dirt as if he was a criminal. I had to write a letter to the police officer’s supervisor about the way he mistreated my baby.

Participant 2 added that she felt Black children were subjected to being stereotyped because of race, and she needed to protect him,“I feel Black kids are subject to being stereotyped, degraded, and it is difficult as a parent, I have to protect my son.”Participants 5 and 6shared similar experiences. Many of the mothers fervently believed their sonswere stereotyped because of race and gender.

Social injustice and inequality

The mothers reflected on social injustice and inequality.Some mothers shared that they felt the government system wasnot designed to help them as African Americanmothersdid notorhave any programs in place to help their sons.Participant 2 reported,“The type of government system that we have today is not designed to help us, and it is not made for our Black sons to thrive.” Participant 3 added that programs or services needed were not available to her by thegovernment system. She reported, “I cannot get help for him from the government, and there are not any programs that could assist us in the way that we need.” Participants 1, 3, and 6 shared similar experiences. Participant 6 stated,

They do not want to take the time to help you, but they want to take the time to criticize you if your child does something wrong, but then I feel like I asked them for help, and they wouldn’t even help me.

They mentioned that they attempted to obtain government assistance and could not receive the help or that the programs and services needed were not available to them.

Several of the participantsshared that they were afraid for their sons to drive a car because they did not want them to get stopped by the police. The mothers felt they needed to educate their sons abouthow to cooperate with authority figures, and how to follow survival instructions if they were stopped by the police so that they could avoid being harmed or killed.Participant 6 explained social injustice and inequality in this way:

I am afraid for my son to drive his car because the police do not really like us. It is unfortunate that as a Black mom, you must give your children special instructions for when they get pulled over by the police to prevent them from getting harmed. I give my son these instructions: “Son, just keep your hands up in the air, do not reach in your pocket for anythingor make sudden moves.Make sure you answer the police officers, ‘Yes sir or no sir.’ Do not talk back or disrespectful.” No parent should have to explain these instructions to their child, but as a Black parent, you literally have to explain this. I do not believe other races have to explain these things to their children.

Participants 4 and 8 shared similar experiences.Participant 5 shared she feared her son might be falselyaccused for wrongdoing because of his race and gender. She did not want to talk to her son about racism, but she felt forced to educate him about how to handle the matter appropriately and said the following:

I wanted to prepare him for what is going to come his way as far as racism and him being possibly accused of things he did not do. It is not the most pleasant thing to do as a parent, and I know he does not want to hear it, but I think, as a parent, it is my obligation.

Participant 5 concluded,“Being a mom [and] knowing that African American males struggle more than other races, and they are held to a different standard, I wanted him to be prepared for him to be able to navigate throughout life.”

As the data were analyzed, four main themes emerged that were universal across the singlemothers’ experiences:

1. the mother-son bond,
2. perceptions of the parental role and responsibility,
3. emotional challenges, and
4. racism/discrimination.

The mothers discussed the obstacles they facedas single parents, and the ways these challenges affected them, as well as how they overcame the challenges. They also realized they had to become educators, for they had to teach their sons how to manage the difficult aspects of life the young men would face.

Summary

Chapter 4 included a description of the experiences of eight single African American mothers. Iprovided a detailed analysis of the data collected that addressed the research question, “How do single African American mothers experience their relationships with their adolescent sons?” Data obtained from the analysis revealed that a number of the participants developed a close and intimate relationship with their sons. During the interviews, they frequently described their experiences as rewarding. Various elements contributed to the development of this close-knit mother to son bond. The key elements included closeness,affection, spending quality time together, and open communication. Some of the mothers experienced a sense of admiration and pride.

Each mother felt that their parentalroles and responsibilitiesconsisted of the following elements:

1. providing financially;
2. protecting;
3. supporting;
4. giving guidance; establishing healthy boundaries; and
5. maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities.

A small number of mothers felt that “wearing many hats” as a single parentcaused them to feel pressured at times. Some of the mothersfelt“exhausted” and “overwhelmed” as a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone and not being allowed the opportunity to take a break from the continual demands of leading a household alone. Despite the absence of father figures in the home, the mothers felt dedicated and committed to their roles and responsibilities, with the hope that their sons would become responsible and successful adults.

The mothers experienced a distinctive set of emotional challenges such as anger, frustration, feelings of inadequacy, and fear. A small number of mothers felt angry and frustrated that their son’s’ fathers were not present to assist in caring for their son. The most common emotion seen among the mothers was an ongoing fear that their sons could experience racism and discriminationwhen interacting with police officers.

The mothers discussed stereotypes, the chances that their sons could be falsely accused of crimes, the social injustice they faced, and the inequality that they encountered. A small number of mothers experienced their sons being stereotyped and falsely accused of crimes they did not commit.The mothers educated their sons about diversity, anti-violence, survival instructions if they are stopped by the police while driving the car,and how to engage with police officersin a cooperative manner.

Chapter 5 presents a discussion of the findings and conclusions. The chapter integrates the data obtained and a discussion of the sources. Idescribehow the findings answered the research question and how the objectives of the study were met. Chapter 5 provides the limitations of the study, implications for practice, recommendations for further research, and concluding remarks.

Discussion, Implications, Recommendations

Introduction

Chapter 5 presents a discussion of the research, implications, and recommendations based on the data obtained in this study. My goal was to identify the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. Snyder (2016) identified various challenges that single African American mothers experience and how it affects their ability to care for their adolescent sons so that they will become responsible and successful adults. According to Doody and Noonan (2013), the issue has not been given proper attention. My findings may be used to inform the field of psychology of the experiences of single African American mothers’ relationship with their adolescent sons.

The purpose of Chapter 5 is to discuss the findings, implications, and recommendations of the study. The chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the four themes and includes a detailed discussion of results based on the analysis, a comparison of the findings to the theoretical framework, prior literature, and interpretation of these findings. Limitations encountered in the study and recommendations for further research are provided and are followed by the conclusion.

Summary of the Results

This qualitative study addressed the gap in the literature by focusing on single African American women’s experiences of being mothers to their adolescent sons, including their experiences of interacting with them (Elliott et al., 2013). I studied the experience of the mother’s relationship with their sons, including the way in which these mothers experienced the development of their relationships. The research literature on the topic of single African American mothers indicates that nearly one-half of African American children live with only one parent, and in the majority of cases, the parent is the mother (Barajas, 2011).

According to Choi and Jackson (2011), nearly 70% of African American children were born to single mothers in 2006. Elliott et al. (2013) indicated that in 2002, 25% of African American females aged 27-55 were single mothers, while only 9% of White females were single mothers (p.353). In single-parent homes led by mothers, the mother-child relationship plays a pivotal role in the development of their children (Cartwright &Henriksen, 2012; S. Cooper &McLoyd, 2011; Robinson &Werblow, 2013; J. Williams & Bryan, 2013; Wilson et al., 2016).

Other researchers commented that mothers behave differently toward their sons, as opposed to their daughters, for mothers may be more negative toward their sons (Barnett &Scaramella, 2013), and are less encouraging, warm, sympathetic, and accepting toward them (Mandara,Murray, Telesford, Varner, & Richman, 2012). These feelings can lead an observedobserverto assume that sons could be in a slightly disadvantaged position concerning their maternal emotional support, when compared to daughters (Emmen et al., 2013; Mesman, van Ijzendoorn, &Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012; van der Voort, Juffer, &Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2014; Yagmur, Mesman, Malda, Bakermans-Kranenburg, &Ekmekci, 2014).

Researchers such as Lovelace,Robertson, and Tamayo (2018) studied the relationships between mothers and their children of different genders separately. Single African American mothers often feel a greater responsibility for parenting their child and the need to do so intensively since there is no father figure for the son (Elliott et al., 2013). Numerous studies were found on the experiences of single mothers(A. Williams et al., 2017); however, scant research has been conducted that addresses the African American mothers’ experience of relationships with their adolescent sons in these relationships’ dynamics. Iaddressed a gap in the literature by identifying the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons.

Significance of the Study

The specific factors that influence single African American mothers’ experiences of their relationships with adolescent sons were my focus. These findings are significant because the information presented may help to identify critical findings of parenting (A. Williams et al., 2017). Single parenting has its unique challenges, and identifying the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons is critical to identify various policies and social practices that can improve parenting in the United States.

According to Daryanani et al. (2016), the number of single parented children in the United States has been increasing consistently over the past several decades. Rising cases of divorce, separation, and children born out of wedlock are some of the causes of the phenomenon (Elliott et al., 2018). As such, the researchers indicated that the number of children parented by single mother would likely increase. The participants in this dissertation reported that divorce or separation were main causes of the phenomenon. Children born out of wedlock and death of a partner accounted for a small portion of cases of single parenting within this study.

Lovelace et al., Robertson, and Tamayo (2018) indicated that African American women are more likely to become single parents than any other population in the country. Therefore, I considered it to be of utmost importance to investigate the experiences of parenting an adolescent son in order to understand their encounters. My goal was to present findings that may lead to improved life outcomes of sons raised by single mothers, such as preventing juvenile delinquency or increasing their academic success. Study findings can be used to empower single African American mothers so they can parent sons who may become responsible and industrious citizens.

The research findings may also help psychologists, social workers, educators, and practitioners gain a better understanding of family dynamics in order to design interventions for these families; such understand may lead to improved mother-son relationships despite the challenges the women encounter.

Literature Review

The reviewed literature provided background information of the issue under investigation. In 2018, there were about 21 million children in the United States under the care of about 13.6 million parents (Lovelace et al., 2018), and I was concerned about those single mothers who were the heads of households. One of the issues that was of particular interest to me was the possible causes of single parenting and the current trends. As Choi and Jackson (2011) noted, divorce is one of the main causes of single parenting in the United States. A significant number of marriages among African Americans often end in divorce.

Having a child out of wedlock was identified as another factor that leads to single parenting in the country (A. Williams et al., 2017). Such cases are common among young adults who do not intend to marry after having their child,and statisticsindicated that the phenomenon is becoming increasingly common in the country because of various factors, and A. Williams et al. (2017) explained that most of these single parents are happy with the responsibility of caring for their adolescent sons. Some participants in Snyder’s (2019) study explained that their ability to overcome parental challenges and provide for their adolescent sons made them feel proud.

The parents felt it was their responsibility to meet both material and emotional needs of their children even if they did not get any support from the child’s father (Daryanani et al., 2016). Despite these positive experiences of motherhood, scholars noted that single parenting could be frustrating to a number of African American mothers (Daryanani et al., 2016; Snyder, 2019). Police brutality directed against African American teenage boys is one of the biggest fears of these parents (Percy et al., 2015). Other parents were overwhelmed by the need to meet both emotional and material needs of their children(A. Williams et al., 2017).

While this dissertation research was in progress, further literature was published (Snyder, 2019; Zhang, Edwards, & Hans, 2020). Financial constraints are among one of the main factors that influence the experience of single parents, especially those of the African descent (Zhang et al., 2020). The cost of living in the United States has been going up consistently over the decades while the income for many has stagnated (Elliott et al., 2018). Many people struggle to meet their basic needs, and for most of the single parents, it is not easy to provide for a large family without any support (Zhang et al., 2020). It is common to find cases where a parent takes two or three jobs just to earn enough to pay all their bills and as a result, they rarely find time to be with their children (Faro, McKee, Garcia, & Jones, 2018).

The datafrom the recently published literature compared closely with the literature I initially reviewed for this study. Single African American mothers’ experiences of their relationship with their adolescent sons have not changed based on these recent publications. As Zhang et al. (2020) observed, these single mothers still consider parenting as a noble responsibility that brings joy and satisfaction. The strong sense of love that they have for their adolescent sons makes the experience enjoyable despite the numerous challenges that they may face (Snyder, 2019). The newer literature also confirms the argument that single parenting may be frustrating, especially for African American mothers who do not have stable employment. Some of them must take two or three jobs to make ends meet.

Methodology

I chose a generic qualitative design for this study because I wanted to obtain the subjective opinions, beliefs, and attitudes of the study participants that pertained to certain external phenomenathe African American mothers’ opinions of their relationships with their sons (Kahlke, 2014; Percy et al., 2015). I met with the eight participants for semi-structured interviews that she then manually transcribed and analyzed with thematic analysis using inductive analysis. Thematic analysis was appropriate for a generic qualitative study (Percy et al., 2015). The demographic questionnaire I created was used to aid in the collection of data from these participants; the guided questions gave give the interviews a framework.

Discussion of the Results

One of mypurposes in this chapter was to discuss the results of the investigation and to consider the meanings of these results in order to determine if the findings answered the research question (Togia&Malliari, 2017). The primary research question that was answered using the data was, “How do single African American mothers experience their relationships with their adolescent sons?”I came to a number of conclusions based on the findings. Four themes noted in the thematic analysis from the interview responses given by the eight participants answered the study’s main research question. Based on the coding process in the preceding chapter, these four major themes identified were:

1. the mother-son bond,
2. perception of parental role and responsibility,
3. emotional challenges, and
4. racism and discrimination.

The data showed that, overall, the African American women described positive experiences, for they developed close and affectionate relationships with their sons. In order for these mothers to develop a strong mother-son bond, they offered their sons affection, spent quality time together, practiced open communication,and provided for them financially. Theyprotected, supported, and guided their sons but also established healthy boundaries, maintained multiple roles, and met their responsibilities as single female heads of households. The main themes that developed from the analysis describe these single African American mothers’ overall experiences of their relationship with their adolescent sons.

Theme 1. The Mother-Son Bond

According to Finer and Zolna (2016), love is one of the natural feelings that parents have toward their children. Iconsidered it important to determine how these single African American mothers developed their relationship with their sons over an extended period and to find out the major factors that played a role in the development of the mother-son bond. Participant 4 shared, “There is a closeness that he and I have that nobody else can have.”

Daryanani et al. (2016) observed that it is normal for a mother to have a close bond with her child. The parents identified affectionas one of the best ways to define their relationship with their adolescent sons. The mothers frequently verbalized that they shared positive affirmation andaffection, both emotional and physical,with their sons. Researchersconfirm that children who are giving affectionate, and support within their homes are less likely to become delinquent (Shamseldin, 2019).

In many of these cases, the mothers actively becamegotinvolved in their sons’ interests or activities. They believed that spending quality time helped to gain a deeper connection and build trust in the relationship.Participant 8 explained, “We have mother-son days, one day out of the week: it’s just him and I.” These parents felt they had a strong bond with their sons and wanted to spend time together so that they could understand their emotional needs and continually grow together.

Open communication was another critical component of the mother-son bond.According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), the bond between a parent and an adolescent child is often affected by the ability to communicate without fear. The mothers stated that they made themselves approachable and created a space for their son to communicate their feelings and concerns openly. Some mothers expressed that if their sons had a problem, they would collaborate to find a solution to his problem.Participant 8 expressed the following:

We have dinner at the table, and we talk about everything. We talk until we find solutions to whatever problem he may have. Open communication is the key; he could tell me how he feels, and I could tell him how I feel. We try to work towards a solution.

As Shamseldin (2019) explained, the ability of mother and son to communicate openly defines the nature of the relationship because then they can address specific issues that affect them and can strengthen their relationship. A few mother shared they sought advice from other parents and adults to ensure that they appropriately addressed specific topics with their son. Some of the mothers felt a sense of admiration when their son referred to them as “super-mom”or “superwoman.”They worked tirelessly to maintain these images of courage and strength to reassure their son,while simultaneouslysuppressing their real emotion of fear. The women did not want to project any of their undesirable feelings or emotions onto their sons because they did not want their sons to worry. Some mothers expressed pride in their sons’ accomplishments, either small or large. Theyfelt pride anda sense ofsatisfaction as theycelebrated their sons’ successes.

Conversely, a small number of participants struggled to develop close mother-son relationships.Some of the sons strongly desired the presence of the absent father,which had an adverse effect on the son’s behavior. As a result, some became “angry and rebellious” toward their mothers. Another reason was limited parent-child interaction if the mother had to work countless hours to provide financially for the entire family. Despite the challenges of developing a close mother-son relationship, the womencontinued to desire a deeper connection with their sons. As Shamseldin (2019) observed, every parent wants to have a strong bond with her children regardless of the challenges that she might endure.

Theme 2. Perceptions of Parental Roles and Responsibility

From my analysis of the data, I identified perceptions of parental roles and responsibility as another major theme that defined the single African American mother’s relationship with her adolescent sons. The women in this study believed that their parenting practices included maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities. Participants provided financially for theirfamilies; this was a non-negotiable factor that paralleled the views of Shamseldin (2019) who described the role of parents.

The majority of African American mothers in this study had stable jobs or careers; one participant owned a non-profit organization. According to the demographic questionnaire, the results indicated that the majority of the participants had received a secondary education, and the highest level of education earned was a master’s degree. However, although a small number of mothers struggled financially, all were committed to their responsibilities.

A small number of mothers had an opportunity to receive overall support from their extended family that provided them with a sense of gratitude. Each mother verbalized that her parental roles and responsibilities went beyond just meeting the basic financial needs of their sons.H. Snyder (2019) confirmed that parents must realize that their role does not end with providing material support, and the mothers explained that they loved their adolescent sons and were willing to do everything within their power to provide for them.

The participants explained that protecting their sons was a critical part of their role as a parent; they felt that they wouldsacrifice their own lives for the sake of their sons. Participant 1 shared, “I am not going to let anybody harm him…. I’m going to protect my son no matter, I would literally lie down life for him.” They explained that they had the responsibility of protecting their children from any form of harm.

The mothers believed that they offered their sons support in every area of their lives. They referred to themselves as their sons’ biggest cheerleaders and support systems. A few of the mothers enrolled their sons in private schoolsso that the boys would receive a quality education and better educational support from their teachers within the academic setting. Other mothers explained that they supported their sons’ overall health and fitness by ensuring that they consumed healthy meals and plenty of exercises to prevent future illnesses.

Each mother offered guidance to ensure that their sons chose a positive path in life. The mothers shared that they gave sons guidance on home, school, and community settings. They wanted their children to follow those guidelines and to avoid getting into trouble (Abramovitz, 2018). The women considered themselves to be the primary source of instilling good morals and values within the home setting. The mothers shared that they used secondary support systems such as local mentoring programs and placed their sons in healthy environments to reinforce positive behavior.Some mothers gave spiritual or religious guidance.

According to Elish-Piper (2013), institutions such as churches play a crucial role in offering moral support for single African American mothers in their society.Also, the mothers felt that their spiritual belief system empowered their parenting practices; it gave them a sense of guidance, hope, strength, support, and protection. The mothers did not believe that their belief system was a method of controlling their sons. It is a sign of love, as indicated in the Bible that a parent should guide the child toward a righteous path (Varner &Mandara, 2013).

Their belief system gave them strength to set their sons’ moral standards and to shape the faith identity of their sons, and some of the families attended church services, other religious activities, and Christian schools. Researchers have indicated that children who are engaged in enjoyable religious activities are less likely to commit unlawful acts (Perry, 2019). Several of the women considered it a part of their parental role to pass on their faith practices to provide direction fortheir sons and a strong foundation to build the rest of their lives on.

The women explained that establishing healthy boundaries was essential to develop a healthy relationship. It was their responsibility to define both the role of the child and their role as the parent to provide reassurance and promote mutual respect. These parents explained that they expected their children to show them respect as a way of improving the experience and strengthening the relationship. Howard and McInnes (2013) argued that one of the main factors that often strain the parent-child relationship is lack of respect. Participant 6explained she wanted to ensure that shedid not worry or burden her son about anything, especially parental responsibilities; she wanted him to focus on enjoying his childhood.

The mothers talked about their responsibilities to establish boundaries, set rules and guidelines, and to reinforce mutual respect. Participant 1 explained, “I was very strict.Rules were established, and I was not dogmatic.” The child should understand the importance of respecting their mother and following the rules and guidelines provided, for this is a way of instilling a sense of respect and responsibility (Peleg, Vilchinsky, Fisher, Khaskia, &Mosseri, 2017).Most of the mothers stated they were “always a mother first and not his friend.” They believed that a “mother’s love” is irreplaceable; a mother will always have her child’s best interest at hand, and that may not always be the case if they are only seenas friends.

The mothers maintained multiple roles and responsibilities such as protector, provider, nurturer, and disciplinarian to ensure that all the needs of their sons were met. Some of the mothers shared that “wearing many hats” caused them to become “exhausted” and “overwhelmed” as a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone, for they did not havean opportunity to take a break from the workforce. Despite the absence of a father figure in the home, the women weredevoted to their roles and responsibilities, with the hope that their sons would be mentally, emotionally, and physically healthy as they transitioned from adolescence into adulthood, goals that were strongly supported by M. Cooper and Norcross (2016). Most of these parents were pleased that they hadwon against the odds to provide and care for their sons without the support of a partner. All of the mothers in the study perceived that their parental roles and responsibilitiesinfluenced their relationships with their adolescent sons.

Theme 3. Emotional Challenges

The analysis of primary data revealed that despite the positive factors experiences that these mothers have of their relationship with their adolescent sons, they also faced hardships. As Perry (2019) noted, fear, frustration, a feeling of inadequacy, and anger are some of the forces behind single mothers’ emotional challenges. Each participant in this dissertation research perceived that such challenges influenced their relationships with their children, buttheir love for their sons gave them the ability to overcome and face the challenges with courage. Each mother felt that both the roles of the mother and father were equally vital to their son’s growth and development. As a result, a small number of the mothers felt angry and disappointed that their son’s father was not present to assist in caring for their son.Having to guide a young man through adolescence alone caused them to become frustrated, in some cases.

Other participants felt a sense of inadequacy when relating to their son about male-specific topics or situations. Participant 6 said, “I am worried that… maybe it is something that I am not giving him, as his dad would be able to give him.” Perry (2019) explained that sometimes these parents blame themselves for issues beyond their capacity.

These mothers believed that if a father or male role modelhad been present, he could have provided their sons with a fatherly perspective, and the sons could potentially better relate to a father figure about male-specific topics or situations. The majority of mothers felt confident associated with relating to their male child, they could not converse in the same manner that a father figure would about specific topics. However, they explained this did not affect their ability to raise their sons to be successful and phenomenal men.

A few mothershad a fear of their sons being influenced by negative individuals or misled by society. On the other hand, a larger number of mothers shared fear of son becoming a victim of police led-violence. It was evident the mothers experienced various emotional challenges; the most common emotion seen among the mothers was fear regarding police brutality, racism, and discrimination.

Theme 4. Racism and Discrimination

Racism and discrimination were major concerns that were noted during the data analysis.The single mothers discussed their continuous efforts to protect their sons from racism and discrimination because these very real concerns impactedthe African American mothers’ psychological health and relationships with their sons. This theme emerged when mothers discussed stereotypes, the fear that their sons might be falsely accused of crimesor could be victims of social injustice and inequality.

The participants feared that their sons might be racially profiled; this fear was as a result of the extensive history of police brutality in the United States against African American boys and men. Snyder (2016) reported that such fears were based on statistics that showed such brutality existed.A few of the mothers fearedthat their sons could be influenced by negative individuals or misled by society. It was evident the mothers experienced various emotional challenges, and the most common emotion seen among the mothers was fear regarding police brutality, racism, and discrimination.

Snyder (2016) indicated that even for the African American mothers who were not directly affected by police brutality, the trauma of witnessing reoccurring brutality on victims who resembled their child could affect them psychologically.Nationally, young Black males were more likely to be killed by police officers than other ethnic groups in AmericansSnyder (2016) The mothers in this study explained that they lived in constant fear of their sons possibly being harm or killed by the police.

A small number of the mothers had experienced their sons being racially stereotyped. As a result, they were falsely accused of crimes they did not commit.Participant 1 experienced her son being stereotyped and falsely accused; the police threatened to come into her home and “drag” her son outside. Participant 6’s son was also stereotyped and falsely accused of a crime. She shared although her son was “respectful “and cooperative with the police, her son was still handcuffed and forced to d outside on the ground in dirt. She also noted that she file a formal complaint against the police officer for the injustice.

Cases where innocent African American teenage boys are arrested arbitrarily in the United States are common as M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) observed, and it was a frightening experience for these single mothers. Many of the mothers expressed that they believed their son was subject to being stereotyped because of race and gender.Participant 2 stated, “I feel Black kids are subject to being stereotyped, degraded, and it is difficult as a parent. I have to protect my son.” Scholars includingShamseldin (2019) and Snyder (2016) commented on the unique challenges that African American teenager go through in the American society.

The African American population has been historically a subject of racial injustice in the United States(Zhang et al., 2020), and the mothers reflected on social injustice and inequality. Some participants shared they felt that the government system is not designed to help them as an African Americanmotheror their sons.They attempted to obtain government assistance but could not receive the help or that the programs or services needed were not available to them. As a result, the women could not rely on the help of the government system.

Some mothers were afraid for their sons to drivea car because they did not want them to get stopped by the police. As Melnikovas (2018) observed, police brutality, harassment, unarmed shooting, and the targeting ofBlack boys and men are not justified.The mothers felt a need toeducated their sons aboutanti-violence tactics, how to cooperate with authority figures, and to remember their survival instructions if they were stopped by the police.The mother’s survival instructions for their son were as follows:

1. Answer the police officers, “Yes sir or no sir.”
2. Do not talk back or disrespectful
3. Always keep your hands up in the air, do not reach in your pocket for anything, or make sudden moves.

The participants expressed that no parent should have to explain these instructions to their child, and as an African American parent, the actions by police officers were examples of social injustice. The mothers explained it would be challenging for a non-African American parent to understand the fear they experience when their sons are out of their sight. As Snyder (2016) reported, such fears are based on statistics on stereotyping and racial bias, for cases where police officers use lethal force against unarmed African American youths have been reported across the country. The mothers believed that it is a privilege for non-African American parents who do not have to fear for the safety of a childif there is an encounter with a police officer.

Each participant in the study experienced racism and discriminationthat influenced their relationships with their adolescent sons. They felt their experiences made it necessary to educate their sons about having good ethical principles, diversity, anti-violence tactics,how to cooperate with individuals in authority, and survival instructions if a police officer stopped them. The mothers believed they continuously battled for access to equality and safety for their sons.

Conclusions Based on the Results

Conclusions include an interpretation of the findings, and it was my obligation to connect these conclusions with information obtained from the review of literature. Further, there should be a determination of whether the findings were consistent with previous research (Bendels, Muller, Brueggmann, &Groneberg, 2018; Melnikovas, 2018). Before focusing on a comparison of the findings and the interpretation of those findings, it was important to discuss my conclusions based onthe major themesthat were the result of the data analysis. By analyzing each of the four themes, Iaddressed an identified gap in the literature.

Comparison of Findings with Theoretical Framework and Previous Literature

The findings from the generic qualitative analysis described the experiences the participants had that influenced their relationships with their adolescent sons. A comparison of these findings with information obtained from the previous literature and the theoretical framework can provide a broader view. When reviewing literature, I focused on two theories, the Black psychology theory and systems theory. Each theory can be employed when explaining the nature of American society and the way it affects people of different races and genders. Parents always hope that their relationships with their children will be positive and healthy. Although the information obtained from the eight participants conformed todata from the literature review, there were some major differencesthat I should point out. An effective way to conduct the comparative analysis of the findings with the previous literature and theoretical framework was to use a thematic approach.

Themes

Theme 1. Mother-son bond

The mother-child relationship was a common concept that was noticed during the review of literature when the scholars werediscussing the mother-son bond. Togia and Malliari (2017) explained that single mothers tend to develop strong bonds with their sons after the mother and father separate. They realize that they, alone, have to protect their children. Iconfirmed this argument through the data she analyzed. Participant 4 said, “There is this closeness that he and I have that nobody else can have.” Participant 7 reaffirmed this by saying, “We have a very close bond.”

During the review of literature, it emerged that the culture of African Americans limits women’s capacity to talk with their sons on issues such as sex (Daryanani et al., 2017). However, this argument was challenged based on the findings made from the analysis of data. Participant 1 said, “He talks to me about almost everything.” The majority of participants shared open communication with their sons. Participant 6 said, “We have conversations about sex. I enforce the importance of using protection during sex. We also talked about him trying to lessen sexual contact as much as possible.” These sentiments contradicted the argument that African American women found it difficult to talk about sex with their sons.

Single mothers’ experiences of their relationships with adolescent sons were explained in different contexts by scholarswhose works were studied during the literature review. According to Shamseldin (2019), these experiences vary depending on different factors, but an overwhelming majority of the women were happy and proud to be parents. I also noted that these parents derived satisfaction from the fact that they could provide their children material and emotional needs. Her argument was based on findings made from the analysis of the data. However, the women’s experiences could be defined in different contexts.

All of the eight participants felt some sense of responsibility and happiness that they were parents to these adolescents. However, a small number of mothers expressed concerns; Participant 2 said, “I worry that I have not taught him enough with regard to him being a male.” The majority of mothers felt that parenting their male child without the son’s father did not affect their ability as a mother to raise their sons to be successful and phenomenal individuals.

Theme 2. Perceptionsof parental roles and responsibilities

My review of literature identified the perception of parental role and responsibility as one of the major factors that define the experience of single African American mothers of the relationship with their adolescent sons. Togia and Malliari (2017) showed that disparities in education and employment were a major concern among these parents.The data obtained from the eight participants indicated that the majority of African American mothershad earned their secondary education and most of them were employed, which contradicts arguments made by some of the scholars that the majority of these women are struggling to have gainful employment.

Their pay may not be as high as that of their male colleagues, as Daryanani et al. (2017) argued, but most of these single mothers noted that they earn enough to provide for their families. The participants in this dissertation research appreciated the significance of education in the society. One of the women explained that she had a well-paying job because of her high academic qualifications and experience, and as such, she did not face any major challenges in trying to meet the needs of her family. Flavell (2014) opined that the American society has transformed significantly over the past five decades as women become more empowered.

The effects of poverty and wealth on society emerged when reviewing literature. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), historical injustices in the United States have significantly affected African American women negatively because one section of the society is poor while the other is wealthy. In this dissertation research, the argument could not be generalized to the rest of the African American population that all single African American parents are struggling financially.

Participant 6 said, “I enrolled my son into private school because the education level is different versus public school. My son gets more help from his teachers, and he is in smaller classroom settings.” Promes (2016) reported that single mothers must make decisions that benefit their families. The issue of culture, especially the view that men should be responsible for providing financial support for the family, was challenged in this study because it was the women who were the single heads of household.

Parenting adolescents was a concept that was given significance as Icollectedthe data. Perry (2019) discussed that parenting adolescent sons is more challenging for single mothers than if they parent adolescent girls. However, this did not emerge as a major issue from the data collected from the participants. None of the single mothers mentioned that they would have preferred raising an adolescent daughter rather than an adolescent son. In fact, the majority of these participants felt comfortable parenting their adolescent sons. For instance, Participant 4 said, “I am very proud of the person he has become, and I have seen him transform from a caterpillar into a butterfly.”

She did not express any difficulty parenting her adolescent son. The previous literature indicated that mothers behave differently toward their sons, as opposed to their daughters, for they may be more negative toward their sons (Barnett &Scaramella, 2013)and less encouraging, warm, sympathetic, and accepting (Mandara et al., 2012). However, in this dissertation research, only a small number of mothers mentioned that they parented their children differently depending upon their gender.

They felt their sons also needed attentiveness, nurturing, and discipline since such positive parenting would not leave their sons at a disadvantage concerning maternal emotional support, as the previous literature suggested. Participant 1 stated, “I am attentive to my son, but I take care or parent my son a little different from my daughters. I have to be both a disciplinarian and nurturer.”

Levels of discipline and academic excellence were other issues that emerged in both the literature review and the data collected from the sampled participants. According to Daryanani et al. (2016), many African Americans believe that the best way to empower their children is to provide them with quality education. As shown in the literature review, education not only makes it possible for them to get decent jobs in their adulthood but also allows them to understand how to deal with social evils in the society (J. Brown, 2016). The data collected from the participants in this dissertation research supports this claim.

Participant 6 said, “I enrolled my son into private school because the education level is different versus public school. My son gets more help from his teachers, and he is in smaller classroom settings.” The statement confirms the commitment of these mothers to their sons’ academic empowerment. In the literature review, Slonim (2014) explained that although it is challenging to care for an adolescent son, parents are more motivated when they have disciplined and academically intelligent sons. Some of these parents explained that the high level of respect and understanding from their sons was a major motivation for them.

The mothers felt both proud and empowered by their sons’ achievements, whether small or large. Participant 7 related, “He is a good young man. He is proactive, smart, and dedicated if he puts his mind to achieve a goal.” Participant 4 added, “I am very proud of the person he has become. He inspires me every day to get up and do something different.” The pride of these parents stemmed from the success and the level of discipline that their sons were already demonstrating. When the child is a role model for his peers, the mothers are proud because it shows that they have succeeded in guiding their sons toward the right path. The women felt a sense of motivation when their sons were obedient and achieved success.

Religious support also emerged as a strong concept during the review of literature. Melnikovas (2018) explained that a significant number of the African American women have embraced religion as a way of life and believe it can help their sons to become morally upright individuals. Myanalysis of the data revealed that religion is a common a source of support, and some of the mothers used it as a way of receivingguidance, hope, strength, protection,and spiritual support. Participant 5 said, “My spiritual belief in God influenced my parenting style.” The participant felt that her approach to parenting her adolescent son was largely influenced by her religious beliefs and practices.

Emotional Challenges

Emotional challenges were recurring themes found during the review of literature. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), many single mothers who were previously married go through trying times, especially during the initial years of separation. When the child reaches the adolescent stage, there can emotional distress as the mother struggles to understand and provide for the material and non-material needs of the child (Shamseldin, 2019).

A small numberof participants in this dissertation research discussed the emotional challenges they faced as they raised their adolescent sons alone in a way that conforms to the data from the literature review. Participant 6 said, “I expected his dad to help me parent him. I am tired, but I do not have the luxury of being tired.” This parent was emotionally and physically exhausted, but she felt that she had no other choice but to continue providing for her child because she was the only parent. Her views were reflected in the sentiments of other participants interviewed in this study

Negative stereotyping by police officers caused fear among these parents, which contributed to the emotional challenges that they go through. In the review of literature, Melnikovas (2018) suggested that some African American parents find it difficult but necessary to explain to their children thatsociety is segregated in a way that disfavors them. They feel that they should provide this information in a way that empowers their children instead of promoting inferiority complex.

The women who participated in this dissertation research educated their sons about good morals,high standards of civility, diversity, and anti-violence.Participant 6 stated, “As a Black mom, you must give your children special instructions for when they get pulled over by the police to prevent them from getting harmed or killed.” The participants felt they wereobligatedto inform their children about the unique challenges that they may encounter as an African American males.

Racism and discrimination

Racism and discrimination were other recurrent themesfound during the literature review. The data that I collected from various books and journal articles showed that although the country has made major milestones in the fight against racism, the problem persists in various socio-economic and political settings across the country (Perry, 2019). Other scholars indicated that Whites are more likely to get access to some of the best colleges in the country and well-paying jobs than do people of color (Shamseldin, 2019). Such discrimination creates an environment in which African Americans find themselves at a disadvantage.

Data from the participants in this dissertation research, however, showed that the majority of these African American mothers did not feel that they were economically disadvantaged, which contradicts the claim made by some of the researchers consulted during the literature review. However, somewere in agreement with the claim that there are police officers in the country who have unfairly targetedBlacks (Patton, 2017). Participant 2 stated, “The type of government system that we have today is not designed to help us.” These participants believed that the American system is designed to help non-African Americans, a claim that is supported in the literature review(Zhang et al., 2020).

During the literature review, I noted that topics centering on culture were common patterns. When analyzing cultural practices in the United States, Shamseldin (2019) indicated that stereotyping is a common problem in the United States that affects African Americans negatively. My findings from the analysis of data confirmed that claim. Participant 2 explained, “I have fear because my son is a Black male. I worry about my son encountering police.” This fear was the most common emotion experienced among many of those who were interviewed.

It is also necessary to discuss the concept of governmental support that emerged in the review of literature. According to Patton (2017), a significant population of the African Americans must seek governmental support to make ends meet. Because of economic disempowerment, some parents have to rely on social supports such as government housing and food stamps (Patton, 2017). The data that Icollected from the participants contradicted this claim.

Each participant explained that despite the difficulty she might be facing, she was capable of providing for her children. Participant 5, “I ensured that he went to school, and I provided those things he needed.” A small number of these single parents enrolled their children in private schools where they were likely going to get the best education. Participant 6 stated, “I enrolled my son into private school because the education level is different versus public school.”

Theoretical Framework

Black psychology theory

According to Black psychology theory, the experiences of single African American mothers are different due to the unique impact of the cultural aspects of being a single African American mother in the United States (Elliott et al., 2013). This theory focuses on feelings, thoughts, behavior, beliefs, well-being, attitude, and interactions of African Americans (Daryanani et al., 2017). It is necessary to discuss this theory in light of the four themes that emerged during the analysis of the data.

The mother-son bond was one of the most common themes in the analysis. Black psychology theory holds that African American culture places value on family ties (Daryanani et al., 2016). As such, a single mother would feel that despite the challenges she faces, she has the responsibility of caring for her son. This argument is supported by the data gathered during the interviews held for this dissertation research. The participants felt that it was their cultural duty to provide and care for their sons. This idea was closely intertwined with the theme of parental roles and responsibilities, which was also prominent in the analysis of data.

Although Patton (2017) argued that single African American mothers face numerous challenges that complicate their role and responsibilities to their sons, the data from this dissertation research demonstrated a different finding. The majority of the single parentshad a positive experience despite the challenges. They explained that they found it fulfilling to raise their adolescent sons. A majority of the mothers had the means and made ways of providing for their son needs.

Emotional challenges wereimportant topics in the analysis of primary data. According to Black psychology theory, African Americans sometimes feel emotionally drained because of the socio-economic and political system that is unfavorable to them (Perry, 2019). However, the majority of the participants interviewed for the dissertation study felt that they were able to meet their financial obligations despite their race, which contradicts some of the fundamental concepts of this theory.

However, their concern that police brutality unfairly targets people of their race supports other aspects Black psychology theory. Racism and discrimination were major concernsfor these parents. Black psychology theory posits that African Americans are significantly affected by the problem of racism in the United States (Z. Brown, 2016; MacKay, 2012; O’Gorman, 2012; Palombi, 2016). This claim was supported by data from the dissertation research. A significant number of the participants explained they were worried about the law enforcement system that seemed to be prejudiced against African American males, including adolescent boys.

Systems theory

Systems theory, developed by von Bertalanffy (1968), is also relevant for the study. According to von Bertalanffy (1969)8), some models, laws, and principles apply to generalized systems, irrespective of the nature of their elements, kind, relation, or forces between them. A family unit is one example of a system that could be guided by principles, as explained in this theory. According to J. Brown (2016), every member of the family has a role to play, and the experiences of an individual largely depend on how well each person accomplishes their responsibilities.

In a family run by a single mother, it is expected that she will meet all the material needs of the child (Hanson&Gluckman, 2014). I also applied systems theory when explaining the experiences of single African American mothers who were parenting adolescent sons. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), this theory focuses on systems when investigating a phenomenon from a holistic perspective.

The mother-son bond can be explained in the context of this theory, since it attaches a strong value on the concept of a family system. There is a strong bond among all the parties involved (Patton, 2017), and in this dissertation research, the single mother and her adolescent son formed that bond. This argument was supported by the data collected from the sampled participants who explained that they had a unique bond with their adolescent sons.

Systems theory also can be applied toparental roles and responsibilities by outlining what is expected of every member of the family unit. During the analysis of the data found in the dissertation research, this concept was confirmed. The parents explained that as the head of their families, it was their responsibility to provide for the material and emotional needs of their sons. It was evident that most of these mothers hadachieved their role in a positive manner.

Emotional challenges may emerge in such a social system. In an effort to meet emotional needs, challenges may arise where the parent feels drained (Perry, 2019).Some of the mothers shared that maintaining multiple roles and responsibilities caused them to become overwhelmedand drainedas a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone. A small number of these participants admitted that they sometimes felt inadequate, especiallywhen conversing their son about male-specific topics or situations. They felt they were not capable of meeting all their sons’ needs due to gender differences.

Racism and discrimination were other recurring themes that shaped the experiences of the single mothers of African descent in the United States when parenting their adolescent sons. When applying systems theory, a researcher should understand the comprehensive components of this problem and how they are related. It is also important to understand the historic analysis of the relationship between African Americans and law enforcement.According to H. Snyder (2019), there is a lasting mistrust between police and African American males, and law enforcement is one of the strongest systems that have been used to frustrate African Americans primarily because of their race.

The findings from the analysis of the data corresponded to that found during the literature review and the theoretical framework. These findings confirmed the arguments presented by both theories:, Black psychology theory and systems theory. Psychologists can use information from this dissertation that was based on these theories because the practicality of the information has been confirmed. A gap in the literature was addressed through a detailed analysis of different experiences of these parents and how each experience was related to various environmental forces. However, some of the arguments presented in the literature review were rejected by the data from this dissertation.

For instance, the data demonstrated that the majority of single African American mothers in this research were capable of providing for their families. The claim that some of these mothers would prefer to parent adolescent girls rather than boys and that sons could be in a slightly disadvantaged position concerning maternal emotional support was also rejected. These parents were not only happy with but were also proud of their sons, and they showed no signs of preferring to raise daughters.

Interpretation of the Findings

Tochronicle the experiences of single African American mothers that shaped their relationships with their adolescent sons were based on several variables, I conducted qualitative research to collect data from the participants. Askarzai and Unhelkar (2017) said that when conducting an investigation about a social issue that affects a wide range of people in a given society, it is always prudent to collect illustrative data (Hesse-Biber, 2015; Isaacs, 2014).

In this case, the literature review provided what other scholars recorded on this subject, based on different approaches they employed to collect data. I relied on books and journal articles in order to learn more about her topic before she began to collect her data that would either support or refute information from those sources (Basias&Pollalis, 2018; Zangirolami-Raimundo, Echeimberg, & Leone, 2018).

Embrick (2015) reported that the United States has one of the highest costs of living in the world. Without a decent income, an individual can easily become homeless, and the situation can be worse for a single parent. The majority of single African American mothers I interviewed were capable of providing for their adolescent sons without the need to have direct support from others. This information influenced the investigation because one of the issues that the study focused on when collecting data was to explain the challenges faced by the single women.

Most of the mothers hada secondary education or more and had stable employment in different industries. The argument made by some scholars during the literature review that Black single parents struggled financially was refuted. Only one of the eight participants noted that she had a strong network of family and friends who supported her when she was in financial distress. Even in her case, she noted that she was working and did not often require support from these friends and family members.

Black psychology theory is applied to explain how African Americans have been subjected to prejudice and victimization primarily based on their skin color. During the process of collecting data for this study, it was necessary to determine whether the respondents considered this problem prevalent in the society and how prejudice and victimization had influenced their experiences while raising their adolescent sons. H. Snyder (2019) opined that the relationship between law enforcement officers and African Americans has remained unhealthy for decades following the events of the Civil Rights Movement.

The biggest concern for these single African American mothers was the possibility of their sons being brutalized or even killed by law enforcement officers. I found that the participants’ descriptions paralleled those related in numerous literature that has criticized the police and the entire justice system because of its unfair treatment of people of color. According to M. Cooper and Norcross (2016), it is more likely for an African American to be found guilty of a crime than are Whites, even when facts and evidence presented in court are the same. The scholars further argued that an African American is likely to get a longer sentence than a White person when convicted of the same crime.

I included the topic of racism and discrimination because of the responses from my participants that echoed the overwhelming amount of information that explained how the unfair justice system in the country causes the African American mothers to experience fear concerning the lives of their sons. The investigation conducted confirmed that, indeed, it is a common problem in the United States.

The findingsfrom this dissertation study were appropriate for the theoretical framework and research literature because the data reaffirmed what other scholars had reported. The study may make a significant contribution to the field of general psychology by providing in-depth information on the mother-adolescent son relationship, as experienced by the single African American mothers. M. Cooper and Norcross (2016) investigated the challenges that these parents face when parenting their children, especially when they do not have any financial or emotional support from the father of their child. However, I focused specifically of the experiences of African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons.

Limitations

It is important to note that when conducting this study, challenges were encountered. One limitation in the study was that the sample size consisted of eight participants. According to Patton (2017), the United States has over 13.6 million single mothers raising more than 21 million children, and a significant number of this population are African Americans. This study only included females; there was no genderdiversity.

It would have been desirable to understand why some men chose to desert their families, but that would be an entirely different topic of discussion. The choice of research design, a generic qualitative design, meant that the study did not involve statistical analysis of data that could be used to do a data-driven study of the problem within the country. As a result, I could not calculate the prevalence of a given issue when using this method.

For instance, racism was a major concern among the single African American mothers in this dissertation research. The method employed was not effective in determining the prevalence of such feelings and experiences among a general population. As Damaske et al. (2017) explained, although the method is effective in explaining a phenomenon, it lacks the capacity to demonstrate the magnitude of an issue. Despite this limitation, a qualitative method was effective in addressing the objective of the study and answering the research question.

Data collected were gathered from semi-structured interviews with the participants, and therefore, the women might not have mentioned events that could have provided greater details to enhance the research. Discussing delimiters in the study can also help future scholars to conduct a comprehensive study in this field. In this research, the study was narrowed to the experiences of single African American mothers who illustrated their relationships with their adolescent sons. It would be desirable to investigate the experience of single mothers of other races as well. Such a comparative study would make it possible to understand the complexities of these challenges and experiences unique to African Americans and those that are shared by the entire population of single mothers in the United States.

Implications of the Study

This research has major implications that were discussed from the standpoint of theory, the knowledge base of the discipline, and from views on practical implications to stakeholders and the wider community. The findings have a major bearing on the knowledge in this field since the outcome of the study is relevant to Black psychology theory and systems theory in modern society (Perry, 2019). In this dissertation, the significance of the family system as a force that drives single mothers to provide for their adolescent sons was confirmed. I identified the unique challenges that African American males facein encounters with police officers, I challenged the idea that African American females were less likely to get well-paying jobs in the country, as argued in the Black psychology theory.

The results of the dissertation may have significant implications to future scholars. As shown in the analysis of primary data, I rejected some of the critical aspects of Black psychology theory. Although historical injustices in the United States have deeply affected women of color, as Daryanani et al. (2016) observed, the majority of single mothers in the dissertation study had overcome this challenge and were comfortable with their role as the breadwinners of their families. As a result, future scholars should be mindful when interpreting some of these theoretical concepts for such concepts, although relevant several years ago, do not address the major socio-economic changes witnessed that have made some of these concepts less relevant.

My findings in this study may have practical implications that should be noted because information could be critical to policy makers in the country at federal, stage, and local levels. The literature reviewed showed that the rate at which the phenomenon of single parenting is rising in alarming numbers, and according to Perry (2019), African American women are the most affected group by this phenomenon since they must care for these children without any proper support when the father leaves.

This dissertation sheds light on this problem and offered needed information for the policymakers to guide and assist them. Waysmust be found to empower single parents, especially the African American females who have to care for their children without any support (Shamseldin, 2019). The current legal framework has failed most of them ifthe fathers of the children disappear and fail to make their contributions toward the child’s care. New laws should be enacted that address the weaknesses of current policies so that these single parents do not become frustrated and overwhelmed in their effort to care for their children.

Social workers, educators, practitioners and scholarsmay find this research helpfulas they support single mothers. According to J. Brown (2016), one of the biggest challenges that some professionals face is their inability to understand critical issues that affect their clients. When assisting a single African American mother, the professional may not understand the experiences of this particular group of womenor how their plight influences their decisions and ways of life. Iprovided important information forthe professionals so that they can understand the genesis of some of the problems that these parents face. Further, the participants’ descriptions of their challenges may help in enabling a professional to make the right decision when offering support to these single African American mothers.

The results from this study can be used to help African American women and other single parents who struggle to raise their children without the support of their partners, since I provided a better understanding of how to implement positive parenting strategies during a son’sadolescent stage of life.Devarakonda (2013) explained that one of the best ways to improve mother-son relationship was to ensure that the child understands and appreciates the difficulty of single parenting.It was important to explain how parents can enhance their feelings of love, affection, and pride and, in turn, reduce frustrations.

I identified some of the ways mothers can ensure that they guide their sons toward a path of success, teach responsible behavior, and promote respect to the law. Following these guidelines can help parents to improve their relationship with their sons and overcome some of the obstacles they often face.

The criminal justice system in the United States was identified as part of the problem. Data from various sources indicated that African American youths are more likely to face police brutality even in cases where they are innocent (Shamseldin, 2019). Research from this dissertationmayprovide needed information for relevant government departments who are responsible for maintaining and interpreting the law to ensure that minorities are not victimized. Policing methods may need to be redefined to ensure that every American is given equal treatment regardless of their gender, race, religion, sexual orientation, or any other demographic classification.

Recommendations for Further Research

The purpose of my dissertation was to study the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationship with their adolescent sons. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify how these parents experienced their relationships. Recommendations were developed directly from the data. A detailed analysis of data collected from the sampled participants was presented, and scholars should consider determining how the lives of these single mothers can be improved as they parent their adolescent sons. The analysis outlined their experiences, including the challenges that these parents face. As Rosenthal (2016) observed, it is prudent for a researcher to identify areas related to the study that may require further investigation to enrich the current body of knowledge. As such, it is necessary to discuss further studies that should be conducted to explain how various stakeholders could play different roles to lessen the burden and frustration these parents encounter.

Recommendations were based on methodological approaches, research designs, or limitations of the study. Scholars might consider using mixed-method research when conducting a similar investigation to explain the phenomenon both qualitatively and quantitatively. I noted that having only eight participants was a limitation in this study. It is advisable for future studies to include more participants in order to have more detailed and richer understanding of the issue under investigation. The review of literature indicated that single parenting is becoming a common phenomenon in the United States (Ellwood & Jencks, 2004). A sample of eight participants was significantly small given that this issue affects millions of single African American mothers. It is necessary for future scholars to consider interviewing a wider population.

My research was limited to single mothers’ relationships with their adolescent sons. However, it is equally important to investigate the experience of single African American fathers who parent their adolescent sons. Additional information could be obtained that determined if the men experienced the same issues as single African American mothers faced when parenting their sons. Further, scholars should investigate why some men fail to be responsible for their children after their divorce.

Courts may give an order on how the two parents should share the responsibility, but that does not mean both will respect the directive. It is necessary for scholars to investigate why a father would disappear from the life of his son and fail to provide the child’s needs. Another type of study of the experience of single mothers would be if African American mothers and mothers of other ethnicities were compared to determine whether approaches and challenges were similar.

The influence of non-Christian religious beliefs on these parents’ experiences would provide information to be considered. As Patton (2017) observed, some African Americans are Muslims while others belong to other religious groups. Therefore, scholars could investigate how each religion may influence the experiences of single African American mothers concerning their relationships with their adolescent sons.

Fabricius, Sokol, Diaz, and Braver (2012) explained that some single African American mothers can overcome these challenges because of their belief in God and the spiritual support they get from the church. Future scholarsshould determine if the same is the case with single African American mothers who are not Christians. Particular attention should be paid to those of the Muslim faith because of their significant population in the country. Studies should help determine howother religions define the experience of single African American women when parenting their adolescent sons.

A main concern of these single mothers that I noticed andthat was obtained from the data collected from the eight participants was the increasing possibility of their sons being brutalized or even killed by law enforcement officers. According to Chaney and Robertson (2013), this fear is legitimate because such events have happened before, and they continue to happen despite changes in laws and policies meant to fight racial inequality. Future scholars should focus on how the problem of police brutality, especially actions that target African American adolescents, can be addressed in the United States.

Their analysis should determine primary reasons why law enforcement agencies in the country find it necessary to use excessive force when arresting African American men. Ritchie and Mogul (2016) noted that some of these officers often cite self-defense as the main reason why they use force. There is a perception that African American men, including male teenagers, are more likely to resist arrest and use force against law enforcement agents. Studies are necessary to determine the legitimacy of such claims. It is also necessary to find ways of addressing such suspicions that exist between the officers and African American men.

Conclusion

My goal was to determine how single African American mothers experience their relationships with their adolescent sons. The phenomenon of single parenting is becoming more common in the United States than it was in the past, and the burden of caring for the children often falls on the mothers. I conducted a generic qualitative analysis and found that the experiences of single African American mothers and their relationships with their adolescent sons varied depending on various factors. She met the set objective by obtaining data collected from the interviews to answer the research question.

Four themes were prominent in the interviews that were universal across the mothers’ experiences:

1. the mother-son bond,
2. perceptions of the parental role and responsibility,
3. emotional challenges, and
4. racism and discrimination.

The majority of mothers interviewed shared their positive experiences. They achieved close parent-child relationships by actively engaging in open communication, giving unconditional love,affection, and spent quality time with each other. In this study, the mothers did not express that they would have preferred raising a daughter rather than a son.

The majority of these participants felt comfortable parenting their adolescent sons. The participants’ parenting practices involved providing financially, protecting sons, offering support, giving guidance, establishing healthy boundaries, maintaining multiple roles, and responsibilities.Some of the motherscommented that maintaining numerous roles and responsibilities caused them to become fatiguedas a result of fulfilling parenting obligations alone and not being allowed the opportunity to share their workload with their son’s father. It was emotionally demanding for thewomen to provide all the material and emotional needs of the adolescent. Despite the absence of the fathers, mothers were committed and dedicated to their parenting duties, with the hope that their sons wouldremain mentally, emotionally, and physically healthy as they transitioned from adolescence into adulthood.

Single motherhood for these mothers came with a distinctive set of emotional challenges. The participants worked tirelessly to maintain images of courage and strength to reassure their sonswhile suppressing their undesirable emotions such as fear, frustration, a feeling of inadequacy, and anger. The mothersmade an effort not to project any of their unwanted emotions on their sons; they did not want to burden their sons with any problems. Each mother perceived that such challenges influenced their experience, and their love for their sons gave them the ability to overcome and face the challenges with courage. Some of the mothers felt a sense of admiration and pride when their son referred to them as “super-mom.”

The effects of racism and discrimination were far-reaching since it influenced the mothers’ emotional, psychological, and social well-being. The participants attempted to address these concerns by educating their sons aboutethical-moral standards, diversity, and survival instructions if they were stopped by a police officer while driving their car. Their sons were knowledgeable about how to engage with police officers in a cooperative and an anti-violent manner. The mothers believed they were first-class citizens but continuously battled for access to equality and safety for their adolescent sons, while simultaneously trying to shield their sons from adverse effects of racism and discrimination.

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Statement of Original Work

Academic Honesty Policy

Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01) holds learners accountable for the integrity of work they submit, which includes but is not limited to discussion postings, assignments, comprehensive exams, and the dissertation or capstone project.

Established in the Policy are the expectations for original work, rationale for the policy, definition of terms that pertain to academic honesty and original work, and disciplinary consequences of academic dishonesty. Also stated in the Policy is the expectation that learners will follow APA rules for citing another person’s ideas or works.

The following standards for original work and definition of plagiarism are discussed in the Policy:

Learners are expected to be the sole authors of their work and to acknowledge the authorship of others’ work through proper citation and reference. Use of another person’s ideas, including another learner’s, without proper reference or citation constitutes plagiarism and academic dishonesty and is prohibited conduct. (p. 1)

Plagiarism is one example of academic dishonesty. Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas or work as your own. Plagiarism also includes copying verbatim or rephrasing ideas without properly acknowledging the source by author, date, and publication medium. (p. 2)

Capella University’s Research Misconduct Policy (3.03.06) holds learners accountable for research integrity. What constitutes research misconduct is discussed in the Policy:

Research misconduct includes but is not limited to falsification, fabrication, plagiarism, misappropriation, or other practices that seriously deviate from those that are commonly accepted within the academic community for proposing, conducting, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results. (p. 1)

Learners failing to abide by these policies are subject to consequences, including but not limited to dismissal or revocation of the degree.

Statement of Original Work and Signature

I have read, understood, and abided by Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01) and Research Misconduct Policy (3.03.06), including Policy Statements, Rationale, and Definitions.

I attest that this dissertation or capstone project is my own work. Where I have used the ideas or words of others, I have paraphrased, summarized, or used direct quotes following the guidelines set forth in the APA Publication Manual.

Appendix A. Interview Questions

1. Tell me about your relationship with your adolescent son.
2. What do you feel influences your relationship with your adolescent son?
3. What comes to mind when you think of a mother/adolescent son relationship?
4. Describe in detail what it is like to experience a relationship with your adolescent son.
5. What do you do to maintain a relationship with your adolescent son?
6. What feelings come to mind when you think about your relationship with your adolescent son?
7. Provide me with examples or stories that will help me understand your relationship with your adolescent son.
8. How do you view the mother/son relationship during adolescence?
9. Is there anything else that you think is important to know in order for me to completely understand how you experience your relationship with your adolescent son?
10. Describe your roles/responsibilities as a single mother to your adolescent son.

Appendix B. Demographic Questionnaire

1. Age_________________
2. Number of children _________________
3. Age of adolescent son(s)___________________
4. Years single____________________
5. Did you graduate High School? ________
6. Post High School Education: ___________
7. What caused you to become a single parent? ____________

Appendix C. Recruitment Flyer

Single African American Mothers’ Experience of Relationships with Sons: A Qualitative Investigation

Volunteers Needed for a Research Study

The study’s purpose is to explore the relationships of single African American mothers with their adolescent sons. The desired outcome is the information that would help to develop the means of promoting healthy mother-son relationships.

The study needs:

1. Single African American mothers ages 27-55
2. Has adolescent son ages 14-19 years old
3. Lives together with their sons

Exclusion criteria:

1. Caribbean mothers
2. Recently divorced single mothers (less than one year)
3. History of delinquency

If you choose to participate, you will be asked to take part in an audio-recorded approximately one hour-long interview. Also, you will be asked to review the transcript of your interview to make sure that we do not misunderstand you, which may take up one more hour. $10 gift card to Wal-Mart will be offered as a compensation for participation.

The study will be conducted in a private room of the African-American Research Library and Cultural Center (2650 W Sistrunk Blvd, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33311).

The participation will be anonymous, confidential, and voluntary; the rights of participants will be fully protected.