Kruglanski, A. W., Gunaratna, R., Ellenberg, M., & Speckhard, A. (2020). Terrorism in time of the pandemic: Exploiting mayhem. Global Security: Health, Science and Policy, 5(1), 121-132. Web.
The threat of domestic and international terrorism continues to be prevalent despite the major difficulties the pandemic has posed on everyday lives around the world. The following literature review study found indicators that illustrate that jihadists and far-right terrorist organizations have used the anxiety, angst, and incapacitation of important institutions, infrastructure, and functions of society to broadcast conspiracy theories and fuel hate and negative opinions (Kruglanski et al., 2020). The study found that there are multiple trends that can determine the current state of terrorism in the pandemic. Firstly, much of the terrorist activities, especially by major organizations such as IS, have continued as they have prior to the pandemic. Certain groups are seeing a rise in activities, as they are able to expose the gaps in security while the societal burdens that have arisen due to the pandemic continue to fuel fear, panic, and ideologies innate to these groups. Secondly, the theme of the pandemic has also become a source to boost their message and ideological advertisement. Groups such as ISIS have commonly implemented current events and topics within their modes of communication and promotion, and with increased time spent online, their platform and those of similar organizations have noticed increased activity. Third, terrorist organizations have employed a mirroring-tactic in the case of conspiracy theories. For instance, jihadists often seed beliefs that the pandemic was created by foreign governments, such as the USA or China, and that the pandemic carries religious punishment for those outside the ideologies. Fourth, far-right terrorism in Western countries has also noticed an increase in cases with calls to violence, conspiracy theories, and the deliberate intent to spread the virus. Future research can illustrate ways in which terrorist groups can use insecurities caused by the pandemic in both the government and society, which formulate as trends in violent actions and misinformation.
Marin, I. (2011). The coverage of terrorism in the news. Geopolitics, History, and International Relations, 3(2), 254-259. Web.
The following paper uses literature review analysis to uncover ways in which the media and news outlets interact with multiple aspects of terrorism. There has been an indication to suggest that over the past years, the media has had a significant role in the promotion of fear, the global discursive order of war journalism, and the impact of visual storytelling implemented in war journalism (Marin, 2011). Essentially, the study analyzes the relationship between the business side of news, the prevalence of terrorism reporting, and its newsworthiness. Additionally, it is essential to assess the emphasis on terrorist violence as opposed to counterterrorism as it is depicted in media coverage. Firstly, the relationships between terrorism and the media have been noted to influence the ways in which viewers define important and less important news. Terrorists benefit from media exposure by having a platform from which to communicate their messages while the media companies, now with the viewer’s attention, are able to advertise products following or before the reporting. The study found that the relationship possesses elements that are beneficial to both the media companies and the terrorist organizations, though often detrimental to people who are easily influenced by such messages. Secondly, the media and news often foster reporting or even entertainment that sensationalizes crime, terrorism, violence, and the promotion of fear. Third, the media’s response to terrorism is often different from other crimes and specialized in targeting an audience that is susceptible to the current ‘war on terror’ model the media has created over the years. As such, they continue to isolate and promote the messages of terrorist groups which they are reporting about. Further research can provide deeper insight into the convergence of the media and terrorism.
Simmons, S. C., Murphy, T. A., Blanarovich, A., Workman, F. T., Rosenthal, D. A., & Carbone, M. (2003). A report of the 2002 coastal North Carolina domestic preparedness training exercise. Telehealth Technologies and Applications for Terrorism Response, 10(2), 166-176. Web.
The ways in which natural or man-made disasters are approached and whether the action is successful rely on the ability in which the response organizations and groups can communicate.. As such, exercises for any form of disaster initiate effective methods by which disaster planners and responders will be able to implement technologies and techniques. The following paper assesses a training exercise that was performed at the Camp Lejeune Marine Corps Base in North Carolina. The following paper methods for analysis included testing in-place Telehealth networks and rapidly deployable communications (Simmons et al., 2003). These included instruments such as satellite communication, wireless networking in the local area, on-scene video, and data acquisition and telemetry that focused on clinical and environmental information. The exercise had participants from local, county, and military emergency medical services, as well as the local fire department and police units. The objective of the exercise focused on the response towards an act of terrorism, which would require teams of diverse abilities that would be spread at multiple locations. The majority of the equipment and implemented systems, such as the Telemedicine Center, proved to be able to respond in a timely manner but exposed certain implications. These included the need for assistance at overwhelmed medical departments, the ability to consult with regional or national centers concerning diagnoses, and psychological and psychiatric assistance to the victims. The training exercise and the analysis following it were helpful in determining the levels and specific elements which would be necessary for a successful response in the case of a terrorist attack. Future studies and continued training may uncover other issues that may occur during a terrorist incident and solutions that can be implemented in such a situation.
Chermak, S. M., & Gruenewald, J. (2006). The media coverage of domestic terrorism. Justice Quarterly, 23(4), 428-461. Web.
Since the attack on September 11th, a noticeable increase in terrorism has been visible in both scholarly inquiry and the ways in which media approaches the coverage of such incidents. Much less attention is drawn to domestic terrorism. The following study assesses the media response through literature review, from establishments such as the New York Times, from 1980 to September 10, 2001 (Chermak & Gruenewald, 2006). The method used in the study assesses each incident covered by the news agency, with a focus on the amount of coverage, variables that influence whether coverage will or will not be done, and the space each publication receives. The study revealed that most cases of terrorism receive very little or no coverage at all, while few but heavily sensationalized cases revive disproportionate exposure. As such, the study examined which elements and characteristics influence the ways in which the media selects which incidents are covered and which are given significantly less coverage. Incidents that have casualties are linked to domestic terrorist groups, acts that targeted airlines, or cases in which hijacking is a tactic are much more likely to receive widespread coverage, with more words and articles on average. The study concludes that the implications on real-life perception of terrorism are highly influenced by the media, both by exposing certain incidents with increased focus as well as not covering other incidents of domestic terrorism. The committed act of terrorism can determine the exposure on the news and media, and the study hypothesizes that certain terrorist groups may use more dangerous tactics with bigger repercussions in order to draw awareness to their specific messaging and ideology. Meanwhile, terrorist organizations that do not want exposure will be more likely to focus on acts and crimes that are less likely to be sensationalized in national media. Further research can display to what extent the effect that the media coverage system currently provides can be exploited by terrorist organizations.
Slone, M. (2000). Responses to media coverage of terrorism. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44(4), 508-522. Web.
A study focusing on the differential anxiety responses of 237 participants to the coverage of national threat conditions in Israel offered insight into the current interpretation of terrorism through the perspective of the media (Slone, 2000). The experiment divided the participants into two groups, with each group being exposed to either experimental or control conditions. The experimental state implemented exposure to news clips from televised segments on the topic of terrorism and other threats to national security. The control state focused on televised clips of similar runtime that were unrelated to dangers involving national security. The study aimed to determine the impact of the coverage of violence by the media on political violence or terrorism, and in turn, what response and interpretation it elicited from viewers. Additionally, the study examined how the levels of exposure to such media coverage would induce and influence changes in anxiety among different members of the population. The results of the study were supportive of the anxiety-inducing impact of the experimental state, as was initially hypothesized. The data also illustrated that there were indicators that suggested diverse demographic and dispositional responses, which varied between genders, religion, and levels of dogmatism. Participants that reported higher levels of religiousness were also more likely to have indicators of high anxiety responses. The collective results supported the hypothesis that the media carries a powerful impact on the anxiety levels of their viewers and further research can assess other real-life implication reporting can have on the average viewer.