Introduction
Historically, women have not been included in significant parts of both social and political life in Australian society. Such exclusion has been perpetuated by the longstanding social structures, stereotypes, and attitudes toward the role of women and their contribution to the life of the country, which meant that they did not always have the ability or opportunity to enforce their rights on the same basis as men.
For example, it was only in 1934 that women could get elected to the Commonwealth Parliament, while only in 1965 did women get the right to have a drink in a public bar. Moreover, throughout the 1960s, women who worked in public service positions and in private companies had to resign from their jobs after getting married. Thus, the long and persistent struggle for equality characterized the fight for fundamental human rights for Australian women.
Key Developments in Women’s Rights in Australia Since 1900
The history of women’s rights development in Australia is characterized by the active movement of the Suffragists, thanks to whom the country was among the first places that allowed women to vote. Their influence was illustrated in the fact they were called upon by women activists in countries like the United States and England to give advice (National Museum Australia, 2022). Many Australian Suffragists, such as the popular Vida Goldstein, visited the UK and the US to speak at public gatherings to attend marches and rallies to support Suffragists in their move toward gender equality.
The calls for women to gain political citizenship in Australia were first voiced around the 1850s after the British government was allowed to start developing representative governments in its colonies. Impacted by the overseas campaigns facilitating democratic reforms, new settlers viewed Australia as a potentially progressive social structure with just laws conducive to a high quality of life. Moreover, the rising levels of education in society and the opening of work opportunities for the population started putting pressure on the government to establish political equality (Parliament of Australia, 2022). Notably, by the end of the 1880s, each British colony had suffrage societies and temperance leagues, which allowed for supporting the move toward gender quality and addressing other social issues.
For instance, in 1884, the Victorian Women’s Suffrage Society was formed, the first society of this kind in Australia (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). Its inception occurred in large part due to the efforts of Henrietta Dugdale and Annie Lowe, two prominent activists fighting for women’s rights. In 1890, the Working Women’s Trade Union (WWTU) was established where Mary Lee, an Irish-Australian suffragist and social reformer, served as a secretary (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). Suffrage groups engaged in educational work by publishing newspapers and printing leaflets, organizing rallies and debates, or writing letters to support campaigns and fundraisers. The main objective of these actions was to gain the support of male parliamentarians to act on behalf of activists and support their agenda within the larger political discourse.
In Southern Australia, attempts to make legislation for women became a frequent occurrence. Specifically, between 1886 and 1894, there were seven such attempts (Parliament of Australia, 2022). In 1891, an extensive petition took place, with women activists taking to the streets to collect signatures for a petition to be presented to the Parliament of Victoria granting women the right to vote.
The final result was close to thirty thousand signatures in favor, which pointed to the rising support of the public for gender equality initiatives. Notably, South Australia was the first colony to grant women the right to vote in 1895 (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). In addition, women got the right to stand in elections and were the only women in the world who got the right this early.
Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act of 1900
The initial developments in the area of women’s suffrage in South Australia played a significant role in the framing of the colony’s Constitution. At the end of the 1897-1898 Federal Convention, the delegates from South Australia, including Premier Charles Kingston and Treasurer Frederick Holder, assumed the responsibility to support the Suffragist movement by ensuring that their female constituents would receive the rights they deserved. In his speech in the Federal Convention Debates on April 15, 1897, Holder stated that “giving the vote to a woman [does not] make her less of a woman […] I hope this Convention […] will do itself the honor and do one half of the population of Australia the justice, which I am asking” (Parliament of Australia, 2022, para. 7). The strong support of women’s rights on the part of parliamentarians played a significant role in shaping the sociopolitical discourse and the country’s move toward equality of opportunity.
The outcome of the Federal Convention Debates, which was recorded as Section 41 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution, allowed women who already had the right to vote in their colony to retain this right in their State after the Federation (Parliament of Australia, 2022). In addition, it meant that after the Federation, the government had to enable regulations giving women the right to vote in federal elections even in case they did not get this right in their State, thus guaranteeing national uniformity. Referring to the Constitution’s provisions, any man or woman who could give their votes in the federal elections could be elected to the Australian Parliament, which meant that Section 41 played a defining part in creating a legislative pathway for women’s unprecedented rights.
Commonwealth Franchise Act of 1902
The Commonwealth Franchise Act represented a further step in the direction of gender equality in Australia as it gave women full suffrage. On the one hand, it was a highly progressive policy compared to other countries. On the other hand, it had only been beneficial to women of European backgrounds, which meant that Indigenous women still could not vote in federal elections or be elected to the Australian Government (National Archives of Australia, n.d.).
The Act was passed as a result of the continuing pressure from suffragists petitioning politicians to amend the agreement and included the federal franchise of women in the Constitution (National Archives of Australia, n.d.). Even though during the Federation process, this did not happen, Senator Richard O’Connor worked to develop the Commonwealth Franchise Bill to the Senate (National Museum of Australia, 2022). If the Bill were passed, it would relieve the pressure from Suffragists to make the federal franchise of women a part of the Constitution.
Many politicians from states without universal suffrage were initially opposed to O’Connor’s Bill due to the reservations that it would pressure governments into making it possible for excluded individuals to vote. In addition, there were arguments against the Bill because of the lack of legislators’ desire to reconsider the “tradition” roles of women and make a shift from family- to politics-focused (National Museum of Australia, 2022).
Despite the opposition, there was a general consensus that the Bill made sense because it introduced political uniformity between Australian colonies. The passing of the Bill shows that the sociopolitical progress that occurred in some colonies would later have an inevitably positive effect on others. The active engagement of the Suffragists with their state representatives played a defining part in pushing the progressive agenda upon the government.
Other Major Developments
Following the passing of the Commonwealth Franchise Act, the 1900s and onward were characterized by the opening of new opportunities for equality of opportunity. For instance, in 1915, the Housewives Co-operative Association was formed, later renamed to the Housewives Association of Victoria (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). By 1938, it became among the largest women’s organization in Victoria, with seventy-seven thousand members (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020).
The organization’s role in shaping the country’s equality discourse was largely concerned with the economic and labor characteristics of Australian society. The members of the organization raised awareness of the monopolization of the industry, the treatment of women in the workforce, the availability of food, and supported women and mothers in their journeys (Smart, 2010). By carefully preserving their public image, they work to “enable other non-political women to become political activists” (Smart, 2010, p. 48). Importantly, during WWII, the Association played the role of the Australian Comforts Fund and facilitated the forming of war savings groups.
Impacts of Women’s Rights Developments on Their Roles in Society
The years 1919 and 1920 were landmark dates for women in the Australian government. In 1919, Susan Grace Benny became the first woman councilor in Australia, while on November 5, 1920, Mary Rogers became the elected Richmond City Councilwoman councilor in Victoria (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). In 1943, Enid Lyons was elected to the House of Representatives and Senate, while Dorothy Tangney was the first woman senator representing WA in the Senate (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). These elections laid a framework for future developments in progressive Australian politics. The presence of women in federal and local governments enabled the decision-making on important gender issues.
The lifting of the Marriage Bar for women teachers in 1956 was a direct outcome of the increasing influence of women on politics. The Bar meant that women educators could not continue their work after marriage, which meant that their teaching status was temporary until marriage (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). However, due to the persistent lobbying of the Temporary Teachers’ Club, the government lifted the Ban. The emphasis on the support of women in multiple areas of social life was also seen on the part of the Country Women’s Association, a non-sectarian, non-profit, and non-partisan lobby group working mainly in the interests of women and children in rural areas (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020).
In 1945, the Association became the national body, which contributed to the spreading of the organization’s work throughout the country (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). The more influence such organizations received, the more effective they became at pushing the progressive agenda and making the country a more equal environment for citizens. In 1961, it became possible for Australian women to get access to the contraceptive pill that could prevent them from getting pregnant. However, there were initial conditions, such as being married and having a prescription, as well as the imposition of the ‘luxury tax’ amounting to 27.5% (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020).
Another example of women’s contribution to enhancing progressive policies was the passing of the 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act that granted all Indigenous Australians to right to vote and enroll in Federal elections (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). This development primarily reflected the progress made in the United States during the Civil Rights Movement. Throughout the 1960s, more progress took place, including women demanding to be allowed to drink alcohol at public bars, the lifting of the marriage ban in all professions, the recognition of Aboriginal people as citizens, and the granting of the first abortion rights in 1969 (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020). Equal pay for men and women was granted in 1972, the same year when the contraceptive pill became available to all citizens (Victorian Women’s Trust, 2020).
Conclusion
As the mentioned events reflect the larger progressive trends affecting the post-war society in developed countries, they point to Australia’s adherence to the principles of equality and democracy. Even though women’s rights remain an important issue to this day, the contributions of early Australian Suffragists and their persistence in advocating for policies that would include women and not disenfranchise them. Today, Australian activists continue speaking out for women’s rights, including the discrimination against Aboriginal women and the persistent misogyny of society. The examples provided speak volumes of Australia’s progressive history and the fact that there was a mutual understanding about the important role of women in politics and social life, which must never be reduced to housework-related roles.
References
National Archives of Australia. (n.d.). Commonwealth Franchise Act of 1902. Web.
National Museum Australia. (2022). Franchise Act. Web.
Parliament of Australia. (2022). Women’s suffrage in Australia. Web.
Smart, J. (2010). The Politics of the small purse: The mobilization of housewives in interwar Australia. International Labor and Working-Class History, 77, 48-68.
Victorian Women’s Trust. (2020). We’ve come a long way — but we’re not there yet. Web.