Introduction
Two key rival alliances dominated the politics of pre-1914 Europe. On the one hand, the forces behind the creation of a unified Germany greatly destabilized the balance of power on the continent. On the other hand, the fear of Germany’s growing influence prompted the development of a French and Russian Alliance.
In response, Germany joined forces with the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The newly formed rival power blocks worked hard to develop and maintain large armies by mandating military service. The resultant technological developments in warfare prompted the nations to spend large sums of money on their militaries.
The alliances formed before the First World War were tenuous at best. For instance, the 1900s saw the formation of a rift between Austria-Hungary and Russia due to differing views on how to address South Eastern Europe. Britain resorted to the maintenance of the balance of power in the region.
Britain traded immensely with other European states and was determined to preserve its activities (Harris 268). It is worth noting, however, that since 1815, the British had maintained the arrangements without entering into long-term agreements (Harris 268). The dominant belief then was that naval and economic strength was all needed to maintain international relationships.
The desire for frequent consultations among the region’s powers was a belief shared by the French. After Napoleon III engaged in serious and dangerous experiments with the Nationalities Principle, the French believed that there needed to be a balance of power in Europe (Soutou 29). The French supported the implementation of a system of permanent consultations among the region’s major powers. It is worth noting, however, that after the first Moroccan crisis of 1905, the French were uncertain as to the best way to maintain a balance of European power (Soutou 29). While the minority supported an alliance with Germany, the majority believed the Reich needed to be tamed through a robust Franco-Russian alliance.
Germany’s increasing influence and desire to assume the status of a global power prompted Britain to form alliances with its perceived rivals. In an attempt to check German ambitions, the British aligned itself with other continental powers approximately thirty years after the Reich was created (Harris 268). Partnerships with the French and the Russians forced Germany to view Britain as an obstacle to their global ambitions.
The development of nation-states in Italy and Germany marked a significant milestone in Europe’s international order. The German Empire held a powerful position in Europe after it achieved unification, and it sought to Isolate France and engage with other powers in the region. Other European entities, such as the Ottoman Empire, struggled to balance democracy with conventional authoritarian rule (IR349 3/2/23). The Ottoman Sultan was overthrown in 1908 by the Young Turks, thus creating a shift of power in the region (IR349 3/2/23). The Ottoman Empire depended on its alliances to retain stability during a highly tumultuous period.
Alliance systems were the primary means through which Europe maintained its security before 1914. They included mutual agreements that were documented between at least two countries. The alliances were formed to address economic, political, and military issues, and they included stipulations that guaranteed the collective security of the formed alliance. The details in the documents outlined the measures a country was expected to take if its partner faced the prospect of war.
England’s foreign policy was dictated by the immutable factors that determined its geographical situation and dependence on numerous overseas colonies (Herring 299). England was determined to maintain its sea power, which it viewed as more potent than land power. Russia’s mission was to emancipate the Balkan Peninsula Christians from the Turkish Empire’s control (Martel 105). As a result, the nation formed alliances with countries that would facilitate accomplishing its primary objective in the European continent.
European concern for the growth of Germany and its influence on the continent was at an all-time high before 1914. The result was many alliances between countries, many conducted in secret. The mutual defense arrangements were seen as an additional layer of security and protection.
The main alliance systems that emerged before 1914 were the Central Powers, which included Germany, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. The second was the Allied Powers, which included Britain, Russia, France, Italy, the United States, and Japan. It is vital to note that each party in each alliance had specific goals regarding their position and influence on the European continent.
How the Security System Functioned
The alliance system worked through the promotion of collective security. The prevailing belief was since all the leading European powers had partnered with strong allies, a war couldn’t occur. An attack on one nation would inevitably result in a counteroffensive attack by its allies. This meant that the stakes for an attack were exceedingly high, which dissuaded nations from attacking each other.
The main parties in the Central Powers, namely Austria-Hungary and Germany, were determined to grow their economic influence and military power. Germany was focused on establishing a naval force that rivaled the British to show rivals on the continent that it was capable of strength and aggression despite its position as a newly unified nation. The rapid economic growth experienced in the country prompted the search for new territories from which to gather resources.
In addition, German forces believed that a victory over Russia, England, and France would solidify its position as a global power. The views above were similar to those held by Austria-Hungary, which was determined to gain more territory, preserve its monarchial system, and strengthen its alliances with nations such as Germany. Despite the strong views regarding their position in Europe, the nations did not immediately act on their convictions for fear of repercussions. Therefore, the system was moderately successful in its quest to prevent war.
Why the System Failed
The alliance system ultimately crumbled because there was a high degree of apprehension between the members of the Central Powers and those of the Allied forces. The growth in a country’s strength meant that its alliances also became strong. As a result, there was a significant rise in concern among enemies regarding the perceived threats specific nations posed (Crowe 1).
The resultant vicious cycle occupied the minds of leaders in both camps. While the alliance system was not the direct cause of the conflict experienced in 1914, it did little to stop the hostilities. The alliance system, which was primarily conducted in secret, meant that hostilities directed at one country were inadvertently spread to other signatories, causing an unintended ripple effect.
Germany’s discourse on war was shaped by the nation’s perception of the Thirty Years’ War and the fight for liberation against Napoleon (Cramer 272). The German leadership believed that throughout hundreds of years, the country had been surrounded by powerful nations intent on subdividing it or keeping it weak (Cramer 272). Therefore, rather than speak of victory, German rhetoric frequently featured discussions of the twin threats of annihilation and defeat.
This rather pessimistic view of war meant that the 1871 triumph was progressively viewed as a hollow victory, given that it partially fulfilled Germany’s ambitions in Europe (Cramer 272). Therefore, The Germans were determined to ensure that war finally broke out to unify the country. Russia’s War Ministry and General Staff had prepared for conflict with Prussia-Germany since 1870 (Rich 191). The Russian leadership was constantly aware of the threat Germany would pose should its allies assume control of the European continent.
Conclusion
The alliance system was the primary way Europe maintained its security before the First World War. The idea was that agreements between nations would bolster collective security, given that the stakes for conflict were extremely high. The system worked for some time but failed because of a high degree of apprehension between the members of the Central Powers and those of the Allied forces. The deterrents that were intended to stop war failed to preserve peace as tensions between nations rose to a point where the loss of life was no longer viewed as a high price to pay.
Works Cited
Cramer, Kevin. “A World of Enemies: New Perspectives on German Military Culture and the Origins of the First World War.” Central European History, vol. 39, 2006, pp. 270-298.
Crowe, Eyre. “Memorandum on the Present State of British Relations with France and Germany.” British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898-1914, edited by G.P. Gooch and H. Temperly. Pp. 1-4.
Martel, Gordon. Origins of the First World War. Taylor and Francis Group, 2013.
Harris, Paul. “Great Britain.” The Origins of World War I, edited by Richard F. Hamilton, and Holger H. Herwig. Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 266-299.
Herring, George. “The War of 1898, the New Empire, and the Dawn of the American Century, 1893–1901,” From Colony to Superpower: U. S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 299-336.
Rich, Alan. “Russia.” The Origins of World War I, edited by Richard F. Hamilton, and Holger H. Herwig. Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 188-226.
Soutou, Georges- Henri. “French War Aims and Strategy.” The Purpose of the First World War: War Aims and Military Strategies, edited by Afflerbach, Holger. Walter de Gruyter, 2015, pp. 29-44.
“The Great War Becomes a World War.” IR 349: International Relations 1900-1945. 2023. Microsoft PowerPoint presentation.