Introduction
The purpose of the present paper is to compare the phenomena of white supremacy and white privilege in the United States of America and Brazil. It will be seen that oppressive racial disparities in both countries are more similar than what is often perceived. It will be done by providing a brief overview of the historical background that gave a rise to white supremacy and by looking at income inequality in the two countries. A summary of present-day tendencies in the political sphere will also be given. Finally, the results of the analysis will be compared, and conclusions will be drawn.
The four sources have become the foundation for this work: Darién J. Davis’ “From Oppressive to Benign: A Comparative History of the Construction of Whiteness in Brazil in the Post Abolition Era”, Keisha-Khan Y. Perry’s “The Resurgent Far Right and the Black Feminist Struggle for Social Democracy in Brazil”, Eduardo Bonilla-Silva’s Racism Without Racists. Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, and Tonnia L. Andersson’s “For the Common Good. Re-inscribing White Normalcy into the American Body Politic”. However, additional sources were also utilized to provide more supportive data and arguments.
Concepts of White Supremacy and White Privilege
White privilege and white supremacy are cornerstone concepts in the discourse around issues of race and racial equality. White privilege is commonly understood as certain benefits that people belonging to the white race receive due to their race’s normative status. These benefits can be “tangible or symbolic” and include often unrecognized advantages (Andersson 20). The examples are multiple: from being dominantly represented in popular culture and catered for at any market to better access to wealth, education, and leadership. Bonds and Inwood comment on this issue, stating that the reason lies in the fact that whiteness is in itself “the unseen, normative category against which differently racialized groups are ordered and valued” (717). Thus, white privilege is the concept used for describing the benefits available to the white population due to their skin color and emphasizing the social normativeness of whiteness.
On the other hand, the concept of white supremacy has a more general meaning and describes institutions, practices, processes, standards, and values that make the existence of white privilege possible. Despite the widespread association with groups like the KKK or Aryan Nations, white supremacy is rather a term that “accentuates the structures of white power and the domination and exploitation” (Bonds and Inwood 716). Thus, it is a fundamental principle that describes the societal structural organization that puts white-skinned, mostly of European descent, individuals at the top of the social hierarchy and makes white privilege possible.
Roots of White Supremacy and White Privilege in the United States and Brazil
White supremacy and, consequently, white privilege have been a part of Brazil and the United States’ political histories since the countries were founded. For the United States, the main root of racial inequality of today is undeniably slavery that existed from the beginning of the country in 1776 until the end of the Civil War in 1865. The end of the Black population’s factual enslavement did not mean the end of racial prejudices and discrimination. The examples are multiple: from lynching and Jim Crow laws, systemic discriminatory policies of racial segregation, to the discrimination and police brutality of nowadays. Moreover, the racial imbalance also dwells on the disparities that representatives of other races have been facing. Among them are violence against Indigenous Americans and their forced removal, multiple cases of Anti-Asian legislation, anti-miscegenation laws, incarcerating Japanese Americans during World War II, and systematic discrimination of Hispanics, Jews, and Arabs. McHendry summarizes this development: “Slavery built this nation. We fought the Civil War to end the practice. However, while legal slavery ended, institutions and structures of racism endure” (2). The idea of dominance and isolated status of white people over representatives of other races laid the basis for the foundation of modern white supremacy in the United States.
Like its North American counterpart, Brazil was colonized by Europeans. The Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Brazil created “social hierarchies that defined European whiteness as superior” (Davis 13). It was done by enslaving the indigenous population and then using imported Black African slaves’ labor.
Among other processes that formed white supremacy was segregation of indigenous populations, limitation of rights and movement of enslaved Africans, and a gradual political process of connecting whiteness to power. The eradication of slavery happened in 1888, but, as with the United States, racial inequality did not end with the abolition of slavery. The country saw the suppression of African culture, employment discrimination, prejudices, lack of support and mechanisms for the integration of minorities, and dominant pro-white rhetoric.
The seeming change came after World War I when Brazilian thinkers and cultural leaders started promoting cultural hybridity. Partially with good intentions, it was done to mask white privilege and downplay the injustices towards blacks and indigenous people in Brazil (Davis 22). According to Davis, “the Portuguese whiteness ceased to be the oppressive force that colonized Brazil and parts of Africa and became a benign agent of a hybrid Brazil” (23). This consequently allowed to create an image of Brazil as a country that has succeeded in achieving racial democracy. However, the actual state of race relations was far from ideal, and this seemingly liberal idea of hybridity allowed to strengthen the position of Whites and instrumentalize marginalized groups.
Racial Inequality in the United States and Brazil: Income Factor
The history of systemic racism has influenced the privilege both in the contemporary United States and Brazil. The racial inequality based on white supremacy presents itself by various cases of economic, political, and social nature that determine the state of white privilege in both countries. Among those, the income rate seems to be crucial as it reflects the inequality best and explains other disparities such as social status, housing situation, crime rates, and education levels.
In the United States of America, despite the governmental and societal efforts to reach objective racial equality, Blacks and dark-skinned minorities are still suffering from unequal treatment of various characters. According to official statistics, in 2018 real median income of Black households was $41,361 and Hispanic $51,450 households as compared to the income of Asian households – $87,194, while the real median incomes of non-Hispanic Whites was $70,642 (Semega et al. 4). Earning significantly less than Whites means for Black and Hispanic people receiving worse education, having less access to housing, experiencing impolite treatment in service-based institutions, and becoming targets for racial profiling by the police (Bonilla-Silva 11).
As in the United States, the current situation in Brazil is impacted by the legacy of colonialism, slavery, and complicated race history. The income disparity statistics show that the people of color in Brazil are most likely to get the lowest income level in society, and the degree of financial inequality between Whites and Blacks is even more significant than in the U.S. (Schaeffer 384). The official survey reported in 2018 that the average monthly income of white Brazilians was 2,796 Brazilian reals which were 74% more than the average income of blacks and browns that amounting to R$ 1,608 (Cucolo). The financial inequality consequently created a set of other white privilege advantages: better job positions, better access to health care, homeownership, and education.
Both Brazil and the United States’ minorities are facing discrimination in income. This economic disparity creates other complications: most people of color become disadvantaged in the labor market, have the worst housing conditions, education, and access to goods and services. It also leads to higher crime rates: the underprivileged are more like to be both victims and offenders.
Recent Political Changes in the United States and Brazil
When talking about white supremacy and white privilege in the United States and Brazil, it is also crucial to address modern politics that shape the racial climate in both countries. The election of Donald Trump in 2016, according to researchers, formed a new development stage for white supremacy. Calling for a total ban on Muslims entering the country, referring to Mexican immigrants as criminals and rapists, voicing support for white supremacist agitators in Charlottesville found recognition among mostly white Americans (McHendry 4). The success of these sentiments can be explained by the fact that Whites nowadays are both ignorant of their white privilege and afraid of becoming a ‘minority’. Moreover, according to Andersson, “57% of white Americans and roughly 66% of working-class whites agree that discrimination against whites is a major problem” (30). Another issue that the politics of the current U.S. president showed is an increase in hate group activity. 2017 saw the record number of documented hate organizations in the U.S., which was over 1,000 (Burston and Twine 106).
The recent political developments in Brazil and how they shape and reflect the state of white supremacy in the country are quite similar to the situation in the US. Researchers observe re-emerging right-wing trends in Brazil’s current political context with Jair Bolsonaro coming to power in 2018 (Perry 158). These tendencies manifest in multiple cases of violence against Afro-Brazilians, feminists, pro-equality individuals, and political opponents. Perry notes that every twenty-three minutes in Brazil, a young Black person between the ages of fifteen and twenty-nine are killed (159). It is also reported that nowadays, Brazil is facing the threat of eliminating the demarcation of quilombo and Indigenous lands, cuts to public health care, education, housing, and cash benefits, which would affect primarily poor people, the majority of which are Black. Moreover, similarly to Donald Trump, Brazil’s president is notorious for his charged statements, erasure of the history of slavery, and the support of far-right groups that have also faced a significant increase in numbers. Embracing conservative opinions, Bolsonaro received the highest percentage of votes at the election, which proves the rise of the white supremacy leanings in the society.
Comparative Analysis
The issues of white supremacy and white privilege in the United States and Brazil have apparent similarities. Both countries have a shared history that determined systemic racial inequality and disparities that minorities are still facing because of white privilege. One of the major tangible manifestations of this inequality is the average income rate which significantly depends on the skin color and determines other social, economic, and political benefits (of the lack of). Moreover, it is evident that white supremacy in the United States and Brazil – both as a foundation of racial equality and as a movement – is becoming more influential and visible.
The main difference between the two countries lays in the principle of whiteness and nation that is characteristic for these two countries. As noted by Davis, “despite the shared history of oppression of Indians, African slavery, migration and various forms of cultural mixing, few North Americans employ tropes of hybridity or mixture to describe the United States, while few Latin Americans refer to their countries as nations of migrants” (27). However, despite these variations in describing the nature of whiteness, it is obvious that both countries – be it a “nation of migrants” or “racial paradise” in case of Brazil – the skin color is still the key factor that influences the well-being of the countries’ citizens.
All of this allows us to state that the two countries have problems of similar character but which potentially should be solved differently, based on the differences in the perception of race. Nevertheless, both the United States of America and Brazil need to apply a systemic approach to solving the problem of systemic inequality that has strong roots in the countries’ history. This might lead to a change for the better in societal and political situations in both countries and an improvement in the position of colored minorities.
Conclusion
The paper presented a comparative analysis of the phenomena of white privilege and white supremacy in the United States of America and Brazil. The analysis showed that the two countries, despite the differences in tackling the issue of race and whiteness, have the same problems that are entrenched in the countries’ history and problems associated with white supremacy and white privilege. The further study of these issues will allow us to determine which measures should be implemented to fight the existing status quo and improve the position of minorities in the U.S. and Brazil.
Works Cited
Andersson, Tonnia L. “For the Common Good. Re-inscribing White Normalcy into the American Body Politic.” The Intersections of Whiteness, edited by Evangelia Kindinger and Mark Schmitt, Routledge, 2018, pp. 19-37.
Bonds, Anne, and Joshua Inwood. “Beyond White Privilege: Georgraphies of White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism.” Progress in Human Geography, vol. 40, no. 6, 2016, pp. 715-733, Web.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism without Racists. Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2017.
Burston, Adam, and France Winddance Twine. “White Supremacy in the Trump era. University Students and Alt-Right Activism on College Campuses.” The Intersections of Whiteness, edited by Evangelia Kindinger and Mark Schmitt, Routledge, 2018, pp. 105-125.
Cucolo, Eduardo. “Whites Earn 74% More than Blacks in Brazil.” Folha de S. Paolo, 2019, Web.
Davis, Darién J. “From Oppressive to Benign: A Comparative History of the Construction of Whiteness in Brazil in the Post Abolition Era.” Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, vol. 8, no. 2, 2018, pp. 11-32, Web.
McHendry, George F., Jr. “White Supremacy in the Age of Trump: An Introduction to a Special Issue of the Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric.” Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, vol. 8, no. 1/2, 2018, pp. 1-5, Web.
Perry, Keisha-Khan Y. “The Resurgent Far Right and the Black Feminist Struggle for Social Democracy in Brazil.” American Anthropologist, vol. 122, no. 1, 2020, pp. 157-162, Web.
Semega, Jessica, et al. Income and poverty in the United States: 2018. Web.
Schaeffer, Richard T. Racial and Ethnic Groups. Pearson, 2015.