Introduction
Developmental psychology focuses on how our thoughts and behaviors change from birth to old age. The biological, environmental, cultural factors of human growth, among others, are investigated in developmental psychology. Numerous theories and models in varied psychology branches have influenced developmental psychology. Each theory and model has contributed significantly to understanding human growth and development. Additionally, every model and theory focuses on different aspects of development, such as behavioral, social, and emotional learning. This paper will focus on the human development theories, such as classical conditioning, Hierarchy of Needs Theory, and social learning theory, and how they impact development from conception to old age.
Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning, also called Pavlovian conditioning, was discovered by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov who is learning by association. A new learned response is achieved by linking multiple stimuli in humans and animals. Suppose an unconditioned stimulus that already triggers an unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus (Kagitcibasi, 2017). In that case, the neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus, thereby triggering a conditioned response that is the same as the original unconditioned response.
Everything from speech to emotional response is simply patterns of response and stimulus. Classical conditioning works in three stages: before conditioning, the first stage; during conditioning, the second stage; and after conditioning, the last stage. In the first stage, an unconditioned response in an organism is produced by the unconditioned stimulus (Kagitcibasi, 2017). This means that unlearned behavior or response has been produced by a stimulus in the environment and is, therefore, a natural response that has not been taught. Thus, no new behavior has been learned yet in this respect.
For example, when I hear a familiar notification tone in public, this classical conditioning will ring true. I usually reach out for the smartphone instinctively, only to realize it is not coming from my phone. The neutral stimulus is the tone, and I associate it with a positive feeling of reading a message through classical conditioning. This is why before I present my good report card to my parents, I usually build up happy emotions. In the second stage, an unconditioned stimulus is associated with a stimulus that produces no response; at this point, it is known as a conditioned stimulus. For instance, smelling certain perfumes trigger certain viruses in my stomach. The conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus instead of after it or during the same time for classical conditioning to be effective (Kagitcibasi, 2017). Therefore, the conditioned stimulus acts as a cue or signal for the unconditioned stimulus. The stimulus is associated with the unconditioned stimulus in the third and last stage to create a new conditioned response. For example, I find specific people attractive due to the pleasant perfume.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory by Abraham Maslow
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory is a psychology theory that explains that human beings or people are greatly driven or inspired to meet or fulfill their needs based on hierarchical order. This theory is based on a hierarchy of needs that starts with the most simple or basic needs and moves successively to higher levels. The key objective of this theory is to achieve the need for self-actualization that is the last of the needs or the highest position (Kagitcibasi, 2017). The levels of the hierarchy of needs appear in pyramid shape where at the bottom is the most basic need and the top is the most advanced level. The hierarchy of needs starts at the bottom with physiological needs, then safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and finally, self-actualization needs.
Firstly, physiological needs are the most basic needs of a human being and are very important for survival. Some examples of these needs are water, food, and air. For instance, I cannot be denied oxygen even for a few seconds because I will die since it is essential for my survival. Secondly, safety needs are crucial; the main concern is security and wellness. I have to take various actions to ensure that my safety and security are well catered for by finding a job and choosing a secure neighborhood. Thirdly, social needs, also called love and belonging, are significant for an individual’s growth (Kagitcibasi, 2017). This is the state where both the physiological and safety needs have been satisfied, and the one tries to find acceptance from others in belonging and love. I need family, friendship, intimacy, social groups, and others to satisfy social needs.
During my childhood, our family moved, and I was depressed and lonely since I had no friends in the new environment. Fourthly, Esteem needs are associated with a person or individual needing to be recognized in society. It deals with getting self-respect and being recognized in society. Once a person has fulfilled the need for love and belongingness, they start to yearn for acceptance, recognition, personal worth, and growing their self-esteem (Kagitcibasi, 2017). Currently, I am a leader of the save society group, which makes my self-esteem grow. Lastly, self-actualization needs are the final level of the hierarchy of needs. These needs are at the highest level and relate to the need for a person to achieve the full potential of their ability. In self-actualization, this is where there is personal growth and development.
Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura
Most human behavior is learned by observing through modeling and imitating other individuals’ behaviors, emotional reactions, and attitudes. One forms an idea of how behaviors are performed by observing others, and this information serves as a guide for action on later occasions. Albert Bandura proposes five steps for learning to occur and considers how the cognitive factors and the environment interact to promote human behavior and learning (Kagitcibasi, 2017). The five steps that promote learning are observation, attention, retention, reproduction, and finally, motivation.
Firstly, learning by observation; children observe the people surrounding them behaving differently. They are surrounded by influential models such as characters on television, friends within their peer group, parents within the family, and teachers at school. For example, I used to observe and imitate models, feminine and masculine, among others. I once imitated Michael Jackson walking behavior on stage (Kagitcibasi, 2017). However, several processes make it most likely that a child will imitate the appropriate behavior for its gender in society. For instance, the behavior imitated by a child is responded to by the people surrounding the child with punishment or motivation, or reinforcement. A child is likely to continue performing a behavior they copy from a model if the consequences are rewarding. For instance, I used to console my teddy bear during my childhood, and my mom said, “You are very kind,” which made me repeat the behavior because it was rewarding.
Secondly, attention; the learner needs to pay attention to certain behaviors and consequences and develop a mental representation of the behavior. It will be difficult to imitate a behavior if the learner is distracted. The first step to retaining information and acquiring knowledge is focusing on the task. Thirdly, retention; it is possible to notice a behavior but not remember it always, which prevents imitation (Kagitcibasi, 2017). Therefore, a memory of the behavior needs to be formed and performed by the observer later. This process is specifically essential in cases where social learning is not immediate. Fourthly, reproduction; reproduction is where an individual can perform what has been demonstrated by the model. It is not always possible to imitate behavior even though we see much of behavior daily. For example, it was difficult to imitate dancing on the ice; I could not do it physically, but I appreciated the skill. Fifthly, motivation; a reward or punishment always follows behavior. The consequences are the ones that determine the will to perform a specific behavior.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is essential to understand human development for various reasons. To start with, understanding factors that played a role in your childhood can help you know the person you are at present. This will also aid you in understanding the best way to model a child in the right direction. But yet again, this cannot be possible without the theories that explain the human development theories, such as classical conditioning, social learning theory, and hierarchy of needs theory. These theories all work together to influence the growth and development of humans, thereby modeling an individual’s behavior or character.
Reference
Kagitcibasi, C. (2017). Family, self, and human development across cultures (2nd ed.). Routledge.