Introduction
Spain has experienced her fair share of terrorist incidents from different terrorist groups. Studying the country’s history, it is evident that it is one of the most impacted nations of the world because of terrorism. The country was impacted by a great trend of radicalization that began in the late nineteenth century in the European continent. Many of the perpetrators, such as Thioulouze and Michele Angiolillo, were not Spaniards. Some incidents that consisted of terrorist occurrences in the era included the 1890s Liceo bombing and the magnicide. A failed assassination attempt of Alfonso XIII in Madrid while in a ceremony resulted in thirty-three deaths, plus many others were wounded. Early on in the twentieth century, the city of Barcelona became known as a place where bomb attacks were common.
The bomb attacks began to reduce within anarchism into the 1910s, giving rise to other kinds of political mayhem. Magnicides in the early twentieth century were connected to anarcho-syndicalist like assassinations of more than prime minister as well as an archbishop (Jiménez et al. 375). From 1961 to 2011, the Basque separatist group ETA was responsible for around three thousand and three hundred attacks, resulting in deaths of between eight hundred and twenty-nine to nine hundred and fifty-two people. In the same era, groups that opposed the country from embracing democracy, such as the far-right terrorist groups, resulted in sixty-six to ninety-five deaths. In recent times, groups such as Al-Qaeda have carried out many attacks that have resulted in many individuals losing their lives. For instance, in 2004, one hundred and ninety-two people died due to such an attack. This paper will look at the history of terrorism in Spain and how the European Union has countered terrorism and helped Spain fight against it.
Terrorism of ETA
ETA was a separatist as well as armed Basque nationalist group in northern Spain that formed in the late 1950s. A few years after formation, the organization changed its objectives. From a group that focused on teaching about the culture, it became a group that enjoyed violent and criminal acts such as abductions. Other acts include killing with the use bombs, as well as assassinating political figures who spoke against the organization within Spain (Jiménez et al. 375). The primary objective of the organization was obtaining independence for the Basque nation. It was a very dominant organization and this is what helped them have a great impact as compared to other organizations at the time. Eight hundred and twenty-nine individuals died in the period between 1968 and 2010. Apart from Spain, other countries like the United Kingdom, France, Canada, the United States, and even organizations like European Union classified the ETA as a terrorist organization.
Apart from the nations aforementioned concerning the group, both and international media also called them a terrorist organization. More than two hundred and sixty ex-members are imprisoned in Spain, the United Kingdom, and France. The organization confirmed the cessation of hostilities in 1989, 1996, 1998 as well as 2006. On the fifth day of September in 2010, the organization declared another cessation of hostilities that remained active. On the twentieth day of October in 2011, it announced a definitive cessation of hostilities. Reports came up in 2012 that the organization was ready to negotiate how to stop all its activities and seize to be a group entirely. The organization declared in 2017 that it had surrendered all its explosives as well as weapons. The following year, it wrote a letter to the public that spoke about ending their activities.
While studying the history of the Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, otherwise known as the ETA, it is essential to understand the tactics the group used in their hostile activities. One of their main tactics was direct attacks whereby they killed individuals by shooting them on the lower part of the neck. Apart from that, they utilized bombings as one of their most popular form of attack. Anytime the group targeted a particular individual, they would use one of their members to sneakily place a bomb inside their target’s vehicle (Jiménez et al. 375). It was rare for the detonated systems to ignite manually, but instead, they were wired so that the bomb would go off if the driver exceeded a specific speed limit. There were times when they used stolen cars and placed bombs inside them and cleverly put them near their target location.
Sometimes, the bombs resulted in the deaths of relatives of their targets as well as bystanders. They used the media to announce bombings if their planned bombing was about to cause significant damage or terror. If the target location had many individuals, they used charities as means of communicating about the threat. In all their bombing attacks, they used Goma-2 at first and later turned to Titadyne. The organization utilized handmade mortars to attack the police or the military but stopped using them because they lacked accuracy.
Apart from direct attacks, bombings, and the use of shells, the organization issued anonymous threats in graffiti or placards. The threats resulted in many individuals running away from the Basque nation and prevented individuals from freely speaking about politics. Also, the group used to blackmail or extortion which they called a revolutionary tax. They required money from business owners in Spain or the Basque nation and threatened them and their families. One of the most notable individuals to be extorted by the group was a French footballer Bixente. After extortion, the group moved the money to accounts in other places they believed could not be touched. According to judiciary sources in France, the period reaching up to 2008, the group had exacted approximately nine hundred thousand Euros annually.
In addition to extortion, the group practiced kidnapping and robbery. According to the group, kidnapping had two objectives, pushing the government to release its members from prison and punishment for someone failing to pay the extortion money (Jiménez et al. 375). In the government’s case, they threatened the government to end an individual’s life they held captive. For long periods, they placed their victims in underground chambers which had no windows. They also stole explosives, weapons, vehicles, and machines for creating license plates.
European Union Counter against Terrorism
As per the European Union legislature, terrorist offenses refer to acts whose aim include seriously intimidating individuals, forcing an international organization or government to abstain from doing something. The European Union also considers actions that destabilize a nation’s constitutional, political, social, or economic structures or international organization. After a sequence of attacks in 2015, the organization has adopted different approaches to counter-terrorism. Even though responsibility for dealing with crime as well as ensuring security mainly lies with the members of the organization, recent attacks have indicated that it should be a collective responsibility. The European Union contributes to its citizens’ protection by acting as the primary forum for coordination and cooperation among member nations.
European Union leaders in 2015 gave a joint statement to govern the organization’s work as well as its member countries. The organization called for certain measures that focus on guaranteeing the citizens’ security, avoiding radicalization and preserving values, and collaborating with global partners. Following terrorist attacks in Germany, Austria, and France, the organization’s home affairs ministers in 2020 agreed to continue their joint efforts in the war against terrorism without compromising values such as justice, freedom of speech, and democracy. The following month, the European Union leaders confirmed their agreement against terrorism, radicalization, and violent extremism.
Radicalization is not something new, but it has become a danger to national security in recent times. Terrorists and terrorist groups find it easy through online communication technologies to communicate beyond territories, magnify their propaganda, and spread extremism, as suggested by (Jiménez et al. 377). The Council in 2021 adopted a rule on dealing with the distribution of terrorist content online. Competent authorities in the member countries will have the power to demand from service providers the removal of such content or disable their availability. As one of the ways the organization responded to terrorism after 2001, it established a list of individuals, associations, and entities engaging in terrorism and subject to limited measures. At least after every six months, the list is revised. From 2016, the organization can issue its sanctions to Al-Qaeda and individuals who either support or associate with them.
Successful sharing of information between the police, judicial, and intelligence authorities in the member countries is essential in the war against terrorism, tracking alien fighters, and dealing with organized crime. The European Union has done its due diligence to establish measures that improve sharing of information between member states. Some of the measures include establishing a framework that enables interoperability between the organization’s information systems to manage territories, movement, and security. Another measure the organization has taken is updating the Schengen Information System utilized by law enforcement and territory guards to relay alerts on particular individuals on watch lists. Apart from that, the organization has given a passenger name record directive that regulates the transfer and the processing of individual information offered by air passengers. Lastly, the organization has created a European counter-terrorism center at Europol to facilitate information sharing between law enforcement.
Following attacks in 2004 in Madrid, Spain, the European Union leaders started fighting terrorism. Among other measures, the leaders agreed to establish European Union Counter-Terrorism Coordinator’s position. The coordinator is responsible for coordinating counter-terrorism activities within the organization, checking on the approach’s implementation, and improving communication between non-EU and EU nations. The organization cites money laundering and terrorism funding as tools that disturb the organization’s fiscal system and citizens’ security. Better rules and regulations against two have been in existence since 2018. The rules and regulations make it hard to hide illicit money under layers of made-up firms and strengthen monitoring systems on dangerous third nations. The rules also improve the role of fiscal supervision authorities plus enhance the availability of information.
The European Union has also established rules and regulations that guide firearms ownership and use. To fill loopholes in the legislature that the terrorists took advantage of to utilize reconverted weapons, the organization adopted new regulations on controlling the attainment and ownership of firearms. The directive consists of measures that enhance track-ability and stronger regulations for attaining and owning the riskiest firearms. In June 2019, they adopted new regulations that restrict the access to explosives precursors to the general populace and guarantee the proper reporting of suspicious transactions through the entire supply chain. These substances can be utilized for useful purposes but could be used for the illegal production of homemade explosives.
Since individuals participate in criminal activities like terrorist acts, the organization, and its member states are now dependent on e-evidence to trace the whereabouts of criminals and terrorists as well as convict them, as suggested by (Jiménez et al. 377). The organization is currently working on new regulations to ensure more effective cross-territory admittance to e-evidence. Utilizing digital tools in criminal processes associated with terrorist offenses across the organization and its member states is essential in light of the transforming security danger landscape and the fast pace of technological advancement.
It is approximated that four thousand to five thousand nationals have migrated or tried to travel to dangerous regions like Syria and Iraq. In the last ten years, the nationals have participated in terrorist groups’ criminal activities. About thirty per cent of the individuals have returned to their native nations. In 2017, the EU issued a directive on countering terrorism. The new regulations empower the organization’s legal scheme to avoid terrorist attacks and address the issue of alien attackers. The directive declares criminal activities like participating in training or moving to a different region for terrorism purposes, arranging for such movements, or providing finances associated with terrorist organizations.
Measures by Spain against Terrorism
The country has remained on alert in the fight against terrorism in the last ten years. The authorities have continuously arrested suspects of crimes that constitute terrorism, for instance, individuals suspected of planning attacks in the country, according to (Jiménez et al. 374). Others who are suspected to be financiers of terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda have been brought in for interrogations. The country has also maintained continuous contribution in the fight against ISIS to the Global Coalition by allocating five hundred and fifty military officers to Iraq. The government continues to exercise leadership in global and regional CT, which consists of GCTF and the 5+5 Defence program. In 2019, the country did not record any occurrence of terrorist activities.
The state gazetted its initial national plan versus the crime to bring together and revise its approach to avoid counter, and battle terrorism, replacing the 2012 plan. Through CITCO and support from cabinet secretaries of international affairs, defense, and fairness, came up with the plan to make parallel with approaches against the crime by the European Union and the United Nations’ four pillars which consist of preventing, pursuing, protect and preparing, as suggested by (Jiménez et al. 374). According to (Jiménez et al. 374), the plan is effective for more than two years. The country’s criminal code reprimands all acts of collaborating with purposes or activities of a criminal group, which consists of marketing terrorism online, remote training, and traveling to support individuals in the terrorist groups. By 2019, the country’s authorities communicated that law enforcement had embarked on thirty-two counter-terrorist operations plus held in custody fifty-eight suspects for the year.
Some of the crucial policy actions concerning the matter include: on the 4th of February, the country’s interior department declared the split of a criminal organization in its prisons. Five Moroccans are said to be the network leaders and sought to invite other prisoners in their group linked to ISIS. The individuals underwent radicalization in jail since they started serving sentences in 2013. One of the prison officials who took bribes from them was taken into custody alongside a male and female who supported the material needs for the network, as suggested by (Jiménez et al. 375). They threatened and assaulted others in prison for diverging from religious orthodoxy and demanded others to commit terrorist activities. They assured their potential recruits that they had connections with the ISIS group and that their families would receive financial support if they accepted to carry out attacks for them.
On the 23rd of September, the country’s Guard officials took into custody nine people suspected of storing explosive materials as well as planning to bring about violence on the centennial of the illicit Catalan liberation poll and as a reaction to imprisonment of imprisonment pro-liberation leaders. The authorities finally accused some of them of being a terrorist group, manufacturing and owning bomb content, and conspiring to cause chaos. The inspecting court freed most of them and required them to pay bail because they were not the main perpetrators in the plan.
On the 8th of October, the Spanish law enforcement took a twenty-three-year-old Spaniard of Moroccan descent for allegedly being a member of the ISIS group. Authorities believed he was used to coordinating Muntasir Media, an unofficial platform for spreading propaganda that supports the terrorist group and promotes terrorism. The authorities discovered chemical precursors for explosives in his home, along with directions on how to create bombs. He also had a list of potential targets for terrorist attacks. They charged him for advocating for terrorism as well as threatening terrorist attacks.
Apart from the police actions on the matter, the country is focusing on restricting terrorism through funding. The country is a FATF member and observer in some of the FATF bodies, consisting of the GAFILAT as well as the CFATF (Jiménez et al. 375). It maintained financing capability for the FIU, which refers to one of Egmont Group’s parts. It is among the members of the Defeat-ISIS Coalition.
Its government has suggested the automatic application of future UNSC funding sanctions in the country instead of expecting the substitution of the prohibitions by the European Union. On the 18th of June, the country’s law enforcement and the Europol captured almost a dozen Syrian suspects who were a section of a major CT funding function consisting of three hundred and fifty agents across Toledo, Madrid, and Valencia, as suggested by (Jiménez et al. 375). The accused individuals had connections to Al-Qaeda members in Syria. They were arrested for being members of a terrorist organization, working with a criminal group, funding terrorist activities, tax fraud, money laundering, and enabling unlawful migration.
Spain has continued its implementation of the national CVE strategy, which emerged in 2015. It identifies likely terrorist radicalization as well as enlistment to the district stage. Using the theory of socioeconomics attempts to create collaborations at the ground stage between public leaders from susceptible societies and reps of the police. While Fernando Grande-Marlaska, the Minister for Interior, had declared plans to restart the strategy in October 2018, no changed version has been provided publicly. As per the strategy, Barcelona is viewed as the most incredible risk area for jihadist criminal activity even though law enforcement made more terrorism-related detainments near the city of Madrid than any other place. It is important to note that Malaga and Fuenlabrada belong to the SCN.
Conclusion
In the paper, we have seen that Spain has experienced its share of incidents that constitute terrorism. Various groups and individuals have afflicted the country through different forms of attacks. The nation’s history suggests that the country has been impacted by a greater wave of anarchist terrorism that began late in the 1800s. Continued study of history shows that most of the perpetrators of the terrorist activities were alien to the country. Some of the notable incidents in this era included the 1893 Liceo bomb and the Magnicide of Canovas del Castillo in 1897.
A notable terrorist group in the country’s history that brought havoc to the country is the ETA. The group was a separatist as well as armed Basque nationalist organization in Northern Spain. A few years after its creation, the organization changed how it operated. From an association that focused on educating about the culture, it now enjoyed violent and criminal acts such as kidnapping innocent people. Other things they did include killing with bombs and assassinating political figures who spoke against the organization within Spain (Jiménez et al. 375). The group’s primary objective was obtaining independence for the Basque nation.
The group caused a lot of damage and used various attack forms, including direct attacks whereby they shot individuals on the lower part of the neck. Apart from direct attacks, using shells which were handmade mortar weapons and bombs, the group sent out anonymous threats using the art of graffiti or in placards. We have seen that this led to many fleeing from their homes because they also denied individuals the freedom of speaking about politics. This can also be seen in current times whereby individuals are fleeing their towns in search of safer places because of terrorist groups.
The group was full of means of causing harm to innocent people as they also used blackmail and extortion whereby they would ask individuals money in the name of revolutionary tax. They asked business owners to pay or else they would threaten their families. A famous French footballer by the name of Bixente was also a victim of extortion. After getting the money from their victims, they stashed it in foreign accounts where they believed were safe and protected from the government’s sanctions. As per judiciary sources in France, up to 2008, ETA had collected around nine hundred thousand Euros for one year. Some terrorist groups are also using extortion to obtain money to fund their operations.
Terrorism has so many definitions, and they vary from country to country or region. The European Union legislature dictates that terrorist offenses are acts committed to severely frightening others or forcing international organizations or governments to act in a particular manner. In addition to that, the international organization considers acts that ruin the stability of a country’s constitutional, political, social, or economic structure or an international organization like itself as terrorism. After several attacks in the period from 2015, it has adopted numerous approaches to fight crime. Even though responsibility for handling criminal activities and ensuring security mainly lies with the organization’s members, recent attacks have shown that it ought to be a collective responsibility. The international organization contributes to its citizens’ safety by acting as the primary forum for cooperation and coordination among members. Other international organizations from different regions of the world should team up with the EU to ensure that the knowledge on the fight against terrorism gets more detailed.
Terrorism is an issue that affects every country in the world, and therefore, it needs every country to take part in the formulation of measures to counter it. The terrorists are becoming clever every day and finding loopholes in the system that they manipulate to continue their operations. Therefore, if every country collaborates with others, it would be hard for the terrorists to find gaps in the system. For instance, some of the measures that developed countries like Spain use are constant monitoring of country borders and the transport system. Authorities in these countries discovered that terrorist groups recruit individuals and send them to different places to commit crimes. By monitoring the transport system, especially air transport, it is easy to catch suspects of terrorism. When one country has its borers guarded, and the other does not, then that is a loophole. If one country has its law enforcement refusing to take bribes from terrorist groups while another does not, that is a loophole.
Work Cited
Jiménez, Aitor, & Ekaitz Cancela. “Surveillance Punitivism: Colonialism, Racism, and State Terrorism in Spain.” Surveillance & Society 19.3 (2021): 374-378.