Introduction
European history’s exploratory and colonization period was primarily driven by need and necessity. The search for new trade routes began in the mid-2nd millennium and was driven by the disruption of traditional trade methods and increased interaction with East Asia. Many goods considered either luxuries or necessities in Europe were shipped along the Silk Road, but the development of the Ottoman Empire blocked this route.
Columbus’s discovery of the New World was another step in the development of maritime trade routes, even though it was an accidental discovery. Such long sea voyages were made possible by technological advances in shipbuilding. Control over the riches and opportunities of new territories and routes was mainly between the most prominent and most influential European nations at the time. England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands established new settlements and colonized existing ones, and most of their actions can be attributed to three primary goals and motives: religion, gold, and fame.
The religious format involved expanding the power of the Holy See and converting tribes, nations, or entire countries to Christianity. This process was often accompanied by violence, with no regard for the opinions of the colonized. Gold refers to expanding trade, developing new trade routes, and searching for new markets and profitable goods to sell. On the other hand, the notion of glory can be understood as the desire to conquer, rule, and own the conquered lands or peoples and impose one’s own rules.
More recently, following the Industrial Revolution and the resulting surge in unemployment, accompanied by a growing population, another wave of colonization activities was triggered. Along with the development of new markets and spaces for the eviction of poor people from Europe, in some cases, and the forcible imposition of civilization, the gaze turned to the East and the South (Stanard, 2018). For example, the cases of late colonization by two powers, the French Empire and the British Empire, will be examined in detail. Using the examples of Algeria and India, the differences in the formats of capture, control, and management by the empires over their subjects, as well as the corresponding features of the colonization process and its outcomes, become evident.
British Empire and French Empire Comparison
Britain and France have long been closely interconnected due to their proximity. Their relations varied from war to alliance at different times, from active trade to rivalry, with periodic mixtures of these states. Regarding colonial practices and strategies, it is noticeable that there is a significant difference between the two empires. At that time, such approaches were influenced by a multitude of factors, including the mindset of the people, the personalities of the leaders, and the prevailing values in society. Of course, France and Britain’s economic and social policies also had several variations, shaping the colonial process.
Relations and Approaches to the Colonized
Moreover, the historically shaped approach to the very idea of colonialism ensured different levels of assimilation and treatment of local populations. In most colonies, especially those in the post-industrial era, the British Empire preferred indirect rule and avoided intense pressure on the Aboriginals to minimize unnecessary conflicts and financial losses. However, the support, or at least the absence of a ban on the development of local language, culture, and traditions, often went hand in hand with the imposition of Christianity (Buettner, 2016a). Thus, cultural diversity in colonized societies persisted despite the absence of such a concept.
France preferred more aggressive measures in most of its colonies. The assimilation of the local population was preferred. It included the imposition of French culture and the elevation of the French language to the status of a primary language with the introduction of compulsory education (Buettner, 2016b). Thus, even though it was not a permanent strategy of the Empire, this policy caused cultural degradation and discrimination against many nationalities. Algeria was an example of an assimilation strategy endeavor.
Conceptions and Practices of the Colonization
The general view of the colonies also differed in terms of the format of economic gain and the overall attitude toward the subject of subjugation. Despite the conflicting interests and the dependence of the colonization’s ultimate goal on the particular locality, a general tendency in the relations between the Empires was established. France preferred to focus on exploiting and exporting minerals, flora, fauna, and other resources (Benlahcene, 2020).
At the same time, Britain’s primary objective was to sell its goods in the newly organized markets of the colonized region. Such strategies are commonly referred to as mercantilism in the case of France, which promoted control of the colonial economies and the development of the metropole system (Buettner, 2016a). On the other hand, Britain supported a free trade policy, which strengthened and developed the market by circulating goods with its colonies.
Attitudes towards the colonies can be distinguished as consistent with general policy, with settlers from both empires settling equally in the available areas. Britain’s liberal approach implied the possibility of internal self-government in most colonies. However, it provided control and had opportunities for active intervention. The French Empire exhibited a paternalistic conception of its treatment of the colonies, seeking to assimilate them and impose its understanding of European civilization, culture, and moral and ethical standards.
It positioned this process as the integration of the colonies into French and European society (Buettner, 2016b). Thus, the general difference between the colonization policies of the two empires becomes apparent. However, it is worth noting that this approach was not always strictly adhered to and depended on various factors, including the local population’s attitude toward invaders, government behavior, and urbanization.
British Example of Decolonization
India is the leading example of the complex process of decolonization, and its results and peculiarities of British administration are the subject of analysis. While generally following the British Empire’s approaches to colonization described above, several difficulties arose during the colonial period. Despite the opinions of some scholars, it is impossible to agree on the peacefulness of independence from the Empire (Abbattista, 2006; Chamberlain, 1999; Hyam, 2012). Acts of defiance, which mainly did not involve violence, were one of the primary impulses to the liberation of India (Memmi, 2021). However, the escalation and further conflict had no significant connection to the colonizer and were caused primarily by internal religious tensions.
India Before and After the Colonization
Before colonization, India already had a prosperous and entirely self-sufficient economy. The exports of spices, precious metals and stones, fabrics, and other national products were high. However, their cost and underdeveloped imports caused the British Empire to turn its attention to India.
Manufacturing, agriculture, and demographic conditions were developed before colonization, but the infrastructure level left much to be desired (Stanard, 2018). According to some sources, the development of railroads and other infrastructure is considered the only plus point of the colonization period (Klose, 2015). It cannot be denied that Britain had its interests solely in the conquest of this country.
When India was part of the British Empire, the country’s economy declined due to its reorientation towards the supply of raw materials and the consumption of finished products. Britain did not aim solely at developing the free market in this case. Instead, it made considerable use of France’s tactics, which involved utilizing the colonized lands as raw materials.
This period is generally considered a time of heavy exploitation, which deprived the people of India of a decent education and pre-colonial opportunities and contributed to the transformation of many professionals into servants (Memmi, 2021). The period, lasting approximately a century, encompassed the time of the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent period of its development. Thus, after decolonization, the state faced the problem of rebuilding its economy and other spheres to the standard of living.
Peculiarities of the Subject
Throughout history, India has been an example of an agrarian society with fine craftsmanship. Trade in the pre-colonial period was in a favorable state of balance, ensured by the excess of exports over imports. Due to its basic agrarian and handicraft industries, India did not require a substantial increase in imports. Imports corresponded to the actual needs of the state. They included essential raw materials or those things that could not be produced domestically, such as luxury goods.
Another significant feature of Indian society is the caste system. It has existed for over two thousand years and divides society into four main classes: the laborer, the tradesman, the military-administrative class, and the priestly class (Raghavan et al., 2022). Discrimination and hostile relations between some castes have deep roots, but undoubtedly, the colonial period worsened inter-caste relations and further hardened class distinctions. This factor must be taken into account when evaluating the British Empire’s impact on India and its citizens.
Decolonization Discussion
With the weakening of British power, aided by world wars and entire campaigns of civil disobedience orchestrated by Nehru and Gandhi, the end of the occupation was soon evident. However, even the peaceful protests of the locals and the absence of aggression by the colonizers could not bring this phase of Indian history to a peaceful end (Wagner, 2016). With the weakening of external government power, two parties, led by Mahatma Gandhi and Ali Jinnah, stood out clearly in the domestic sphere (Raghavan et al., 2022). These political forces represented the Hindu and Muslim League, respectively, as well as religious movements and lifestyles.
It was primarily religious and strategic differences that led to the escalation of violence and the outbreak of a full-scale civil war between the central-southern and northeastern regions of the state. Against this backdrop of internal conflict, the British government evacuated its fellow citizens from India in February 1947 (Buettner, 2016a). The final result of this spiral of violence was dividing the decolonized country into two independent entities, India and Pakistan, the majority of whose inhabitants were Hindu and Muslim, respectively.
A common cause of decolonization was India’s rise of anti-colonialist and peaceful neutralist movements. The British Empire lacked sufficient means to confront defiance and suppress the rebellious colonies, and was forced to retreat (Hyam, 2012). Thus, this analysis does not fully assure us that the British Empire would not have decided to suppress the protesters by force to maintain power over India and other similar territories, such as Ceylon, Burma, and Malaya, if it had the strength and means.
French Example of Decolonization
Algeria is an example of French colonialism, in many respects radically different from the British experience in India. This African country was an ambiguous acquisition for the Empire, marking virtually its entire period of occupation with struggles against invaders. The benefits derived from the exploitation and expropriation of coal, iron, and gold, along with the relocation of its citizens, did not always match the losses. Even after the invention of petroleum processing and discovery, the general restlessness of the situation cut into potential earnings. Sabotage and military confrontations, combined with guerrilla movements, were not conducive to the retention of this colony.
Algeria Before and After the Colonization
The entire history of Algeria consists of invasions, with references to different attackers. Carthage, founded by Phoenician traders and the ancestor of modern Tunisia, repeatedly invaded the territory, founding settlements along the coast. After Carthage, it was the turn of the Roman Empire, which annexed the Berber lands in the first and second centuries (Collins, 2017). Further invasions were made by the Vandal tribes, the Byzantines, and the armies of the Muslim Arabs, who spread Islam into Berber territory for nearly a thousand years (Reid, 2020). Spain and the Ottoman Empire were the forerunners of the French conquest of Algeria.
The Berbers became independent in advancing Islam in this region because the tribes chose to avoid being a religious minority. As the Arab invaders confined themselves to cities on the coast, settlements in mountainous and rural areas remained predominantly Berber. However, the compatibility of Islam with the people’s beliefs provided a sufficient sense of belonging, and the Aboriginal population mixed with the Arab invaders in large part.
French colonization was initially met with resistance and lasted several years. On average, the French took about 17 years, from 1830 to 1847, to achieve control (Buettner, 2016b). The imposition of a cultural imperialism policy met with society’s reluctance to rebuild. The cultural characteristics of Algerian society were actively suppressed, Christianity was imposed, churches were destroyed, and infrastructure was forcibly changed.
European settlers eventually became owners of the most fertile lands and were the representatives of the metropolis on Algerian soil, concentrating the main economic and political power in their hands. The colonization period was marked by an increase in the country’s population and the introduction of compulsory primary education. These processes were accompanied by discrimination against the country’s indigenous peoples.
French replaced the original language, and there was no incentive for Muslims to attend educational institutions (Choi, 2016). Moreover, the process of conquest resulted in the genocide of the local population through massacres, war, starvation, and disease (Reid, 2020). The demographic state owed its replenishment and growth primarily to the settlers.
Peculiarities of the Subject
Algeria is the second-largest country in Africa, second only to Sudan. It has a Mediterranean coast and borders six other countries in the northernmost part of the continent. Notably, the French established the current borders during colonization from 1830 to 1962 (Choi, 2016).
The Berber coast, which owes its name to the Berber people, was known for its pirate squadrons, which regularly attacked Christian merchant and military ships. Only after the defeat of the U.S. Navy in 1815 did the pirate fleet cease to exist (Lockhart, 2018). However, the complete eradication of waterboarding only occurred after the colonization of Algeria by the French.
Algeria’s Muslim society, combining Arab and Berber roots, was characterized by high religiosity and militancy. Some tribes preferred a nomadic lifestyle for animal husbandry because the soil was unsuitable for crop cultivation. Algeria’s land was rich in natural resources, many of which had not been mined prior to France’s colonization. Infrastructure was also underdeveloped because of the country’s specific climate and location.
Decolonization Discussion
Algeria’s struggle for independence from the colonizers was far more complex than India’s experience of decolonization. The Algerian Revolution took eight years and was fought between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (Reid, 2020). It was accompanied by guerrilla warfare and civil conflicts within the communities, and some of this violence even took place on the territory of the metropolis itself.
France, weakened by the change of governments and the Second World War, was ultimately unable to adequately confront the Algerian freedom fighters. After a series of negotiations with representatives of the Liberation Front, Charles de Gaulle promoted the Evian Accords (Sparks, 2022). These agreements were established to ensure Algeria’s peace and independence.
However, the French withdrawal from Algeria only provoked an additional state crisis. Attacks on de Gaulle and military coup attempts by underground French military and revanchist imperialist organizations should have prevented Algeria’s independence. According to Buettner (2016b), examples of such activities include assassinations and bombings in Algeria and France. In addition, about one million Euro-Algerians, born during the occupation or coming from Europe, were forced to flee to France out of concern for their lives and fear of retaliation by the natives (Lockhart, 2018). Therefore, this situation provoked even more turmoil in the monopoly.
The bloody process of decolonization, culminating in the treaties, took many lives. More than one million military and peaceful people died, and more than two million Algerians went through concentration camps (Manceron & Morin, 2021). Many villages and settlements, industries, and agricultural lands were destroyed. The policies pursued by the French Empire in Algeria were the cause of this tragedy.
The suppression of culture, religion, and the nation’s self-determination provoked a growing resentment and rejection of the occupiers. The overly harsh measures and the number of crimes against humanity during colonization by the invader could not be resolved calmly (Manceron & Morin, 2021). The overall strategy of suppression and discrimination of the French Empire exemplified colonialism’s brutality, inefficiency, and pointlessness.
Conclusion
The difference in the approaches of most French and British empires to colonization is noticeable. In the case of Algeria and India, however, outside influences were much more critical. Moreover, Britain followed French policy in occupying India and was primarily responsible for the sacrifices that occurred both during and before decolonization, including famine and disease. The desire to leave India was due to circumstances, and it is for this reason alone that the outbreak of the British-Indian Decolonization War did not occur.
For its part, France was too busy suppressing local values, which caused most of its problems. The forcible imposition of the metropolis’s religion, language, and culture reinforced the formation of underground and guerrilla movements for independence. Colonization, begun, continued, and ended in blood, underscored the French Empire’s inability to carry out colonial actions and achieve its original goals. The enormous number of victims became a monument to the meaninglessness and unacceptability of colonialism for posterity.
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