Drivers of European Exploration of the New World
North American colonial growth was a hugely intricate and complicated process. It was primarily a tale of human ambition, characterized by the desire to dominate and subjugate the New World that European explorers had accidentally discovered. The early history of the United States would be shaped by this drive for domination and growth.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, they discovered a large and varied continent that was home to numerous indigenous cultures. The conflict between the Old and New Worlds and the clash of cultures was inevitable as European invaders sought to take advantage of the region’s plentiful resources and build larger empires. This essay explores the complex process of colonial growth, highlighting the disputes that occurred between colonists and native tribes, the crucial importance of cooperation among colonial towns, and the lasting effects of these early encounters. For the United States to gain momentum and develop into the country we know and love today, the unity of the small and weak settlements was essential.
European explorers were fueled by a combination of curiosity, ambition, and a desire for adventure when they first set foot on North American soil. They had numerous reasons for starting these perilous excursions, including the desire for wealth, the need to expand their territory, and the desire to spread their religious ideas. They were driven by this desire to explore more of the uncharted, making the Age of Exploration one of the most important turning points in human history.
Exploration was largely driven by economic factors. Many European countries funded these expeditions because of the prospect of new trade routes to Asia, the discovery of untapped sources of riches, and the chance to increase territorial holdings. As many explorers strove to take Christianity to the most remote corners of the globe, the religious fervor of the time also played an important part.
These journeys were made possible by navigational technology breakthroughs. Explorers were more comfortable navigating the perilous Atlantic Ocean thanks to devices like the astrolabe and improved ship designs. These inventions not only enabled these expeditions but also opened the door for ongoing exchanges between the Old and New Worlds.
European-Indigenous Interactions
In North America, the first interactions with indigenous peoples were a mix of curiosity and misunderstanding. Native tribes and European settlers encountered totally foreign cultures, traditions, and languages. These initial encounters would serve as the starting point for subsequent interactions, some of which would be amicable and cooperative and others which would be tainted by misunderstanding and conflict.
Barriers to European Settling in North America
There were many obstacles to overcome before permanent European settlements could be established in North America. The first attempts in this direction were Plymouth in 1620 and Jamestown, founded in 1607. In addition to the extension of the European continent, these communities also demonstrated the resilience and adaptability of the human spirit.
Numerous challenges were put in their way, including severe and unfamiliar environmental conditions and tense relationships with local tribes. Early interactions with the local tribes were very diverse. Given the possible benefits that such connections afforded, some tribes were open to trade and cooperation.
Others, however, reacted hostilely because they saw the European newcomers as a danger to their way of life. As settlers sought to comprehend the complexity of the Native American communities they came into contact with, their initial contacts ranged from peaceful trading to deadly confrontations. The impact of disease, notably smallpox, on the trajectory of these early interactions was one important aspect. Unknowingly brought by Europeans, these lethal viruses had a devastating effect on native communities. These illnesses wiped off entire communities, leaving them open to further colonization by Europeans and changing the demographic makeup of the continent.
Economic Aspects of European Colonization of America
The system of exploitation of colonies served the interests of the nascent European capitalism and, in its essential components, was the same for all American possessions. It was based on several factors, including the supreme ownership of the European monarchs over the natural and human resources of the New World. In addition, this system was also based on the strict trade monopoly of the colonizers in the exchange of goods with the colonies.
In Spain, trade with America was controlled by the Trade Wall established in 1503 and conducted only through the Spanish port of Seville and, since 1717, through Cadiz. In addition, since 1561, Spanish merchants had to sail to America exclusively as part of one of two large flotillas under the protection of warships. One went to Panama in January, the other to New Spain in August. Portugal introduced similar procedures for Brazil in the 60s of the XVII century.
In the French colonies since 1664, The West India Company had a monopoly in trade, and after its liquidation in 1674, the royal government of France. Dutch American trade was managed by the Netherlands West India Company. The trade monopoly of England began with the Navigation Act of 1651. All the metropolises forbade their colonies to trade with foreign countries and pursued smuggling.
Everywhere, the trade monopoly was strengthened by prohibitions or restrictions on exchange between colonies of the same power. It was also installed on many types of processing of raw materials directly in the colonies. Each of the countries that colonized America had colonies that supplied Europe with raw sugar from cane in large quantities.
However, processing plants were created in the metropolises, and from there the colonies received ready-made sugar. Trade monopoly, prohibitions and restrictions were the most important mechanism for keeping colonies in the role of raw materials appendages and robbing them through non-equivalent exchange. It brought fabulous profits to the European commercial and industrial bourgeoisie.
Numerous taxes combined with the monopoly of the colonial authorities on the sale of the most popular goods – salt, vodka, tobacco and other products – were a heavy burden on the population of the New World. In Brazil and Spanish America, the owners of gold mines and silver mines paid in favor of the crown as the supreme owner of the royal quinto which is a fifth of the used metal. The planters of the French colonies paid an annual tax of 33 livres for each of their slaves.
In all colonies, export and import duties, a sales tax within the colonies, taxes on housing and much more were levied. Everywhere the owners of the land were taxed with church tithes. At the same time, only part of the tax revenues went to the maintenance of the colonial apparatus, the rest was spent on the needs of the metropolises.
Socioeconomic Aspects of European Colonization of America
Although America was mastered by different European powers and in different historical epochs, nevertheless, the socioeconomic system in the colonies was not determined by differences between colonizers. It was primarily influenced by the climatic and demographic characteristics of the colonized territories.
Indian tribes of hunters, gatherers, and primitive farmers lived on the Caribbean islands located in the tropics and subtropics, the coast of Venezuela, New Granada, Brazil, and Guiana before the arrival of Europeans. All of them were little or not at all suitable for use. Everywhere, the indigenous population has disappeared. This happened regardless of whether these lands were inherited by the Iberian colonialists or by the British, French, and Dutch. The basis of the economy was the plantation economy, which supplied Europe with cane sugar, cotton, cocoa, coffee, and other tropical crops. Black slaves were imported from Africa to work on plantations.
Nomadic tribes of Indians were ruthlessly exterminated also in temperate and close to climatic zones. They were destroyed on the La Plata in Chile, in the southwestern regions of Brazil, and in the north of Mexico. Although the Iberians worked on these territories, large centers of cattle breeding and grain farming developed here. Their ethnic composition of the population did not differ much from the English, French, Dutch resettlement colonies in North America, South Africa, Australia or New Zealand.
At the same time, central and southern Mexico and New Granada, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Peru, captured by Spain, were richer. These riches were not only deposits of gold, silver, and emeralds. Valuable was the indigenous population that created the highly developed Indian civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs, Incas, and Chibcha. These peoples were at the stage of social development that was characteristic of the ancient countries of the East with an Asian mode of production and a state in the form of despotism. They had thousands of years of labor skills in agriculture, crafts, and mining. The nationalities were accustomed to being exploited by their state bureaucracy, which provided valuable labor for the colonizers. Due to colonization, the heritage of these civilizations was significantly damaged and partially lost.
European Exploitation of Indians
The initial form of exploitation of the Indian community was the encomienda. It consisted in the transfer of a certain number of communities to the distinguished conquistadors. The Indians continued to farm on communal land under the direction of their chiefs. However, they forcibly gave away most of the manufactured product and provided personal services to the conquistadors. The Indians worked in the fields, mines, manufactories belonging to them, in the mines or at home. In form, these were duties that benefited their nobility and the state, and not the colonized people.
The colonies consequently lost their natural resources, ethnic identity, and some of their own cultural traditions. To decrease their population, the indigenous people of the seized lands were quickly ruthlessly wiped out. If forcible eradication did not occur, then people perished as a result of epidemics that were sparked by foreign diseases.
Since the prevailing powers could not let it, political growth in the colonies was completely nonexistent. Due to this aspect, these nations eventually experienced a challenging period of political structure creation that was characterized by war, oppression, and destruction. All this has led to the fact that, as a result of colonialism, a crisis in the structure and culture of traditional society has developed in Latin American countries.
Bibliography
Locke Joseph, and Ben Wright. The American Yawp. California: Stanford University Press, 2019.