Introduction
Environmental history is a dynamically developing field of historiography. It is characterized by intensive institutionalization processes, lively discussions about conceptual foundations, and the search for specific research tools. Most works focus on the 19th and 20th centuries, the time of manufactured disasters and the development of mass environmental movements. Environmental history is the science of the interaction between nature and man, and the period of European-American development is one of its most important parts.
The Columbian Exchange
One of the first significant events in ecological history is the Columbian exchange. The new contacts between the world’s populations led to various crops and livestock interchange, which increased food production (Nunn and Quian 165). Moreover, it caused an increase in the Old World’s population. Nevertheless, the event also had negative consequences, among which were the diseases of the Old World. Their devastating effects greatly influenced the U.S., which was not ready for the illnesses.
Ecological Racism
Environmental history is very broad and examines, among other things, the causes of certain disasters. It reveals that exploiting the planet’s natural resources has always gone hand in hand with the enslavement of non-white people (Bullard 3). Despite the abolition of racial discrimination and the acquisition of legal civil rights by people of color, the echoes of discrimination can still be felt today. Avoiding the question of race in ecology is a flight from history itself (Olmstead and Rhode 5).
On this basis, Thoreau’s teachings cannot be considered universal because they overlook the extent to which white supremacy has impacted nature (Gould 180). Environmental injustice is closely tied to racial issues because, for non-white races, the climate crisis has long been part of everyday life (Brown 3). They are the ones who first faced droughts and floods, and this situation needs to be addressed.
Impact of the Civil War on the Environment
One of the major events affecting environmental history and preceding U.S. development was the Civil War. Digging holes destroyed the soil, while logging and fires for military purposes eradicated entire ecosystems (Widmer 2). Even large-scale exercises cannot compare with the real war, when the ground is, in some places, ripped open by trenches and torn apart by the explosions. These scars, especially after the Helena campaign with its manipulations shaped by the environment, remain for many decades (Schieffler 16). In the endless armed conflicts, humanity can cause irreparable damage to the entire planet.
Transport, Industrial Revolutions, and Philadelphia’s First Ecology
The Transport and Industrial Revolutions are connected primarily with the objective processes of civilizational development. The Industrial Revolution is identified with the beginning of the use of machines, unconventional energy sources, new types of raw materials, and the emergence of mass production. Along with the industrial revolution, which primarily created a large industry, mechanization contributed to the parallel development of small industries (Allosso 142). The growing number of needs and production caused the development of farming.
At the same time, there are negative aspects primarily caused by irregular human activities. For example, the exhaust fumes from the hundreds of millions of tons of oil burned annually in car engines mix with water vapor to form smog, which delays the release of the excess heat that the Earth receives from the sun (Cross 23). Not all cities benefited from industrial development, particularly at the peak of industrial and commercial growth; Philadelphia faced its first crisis.
One of Philadelphia’s biggest problems was its streets and alleys. Aware of the magnitude of the problem, in 1762, the Assembly passed Philadelphia’s first comprehensive Environmental Protection Act, which dealt primarily with the operation of businesses (Olton 94). The rapid pace of the revolution caused short-lived success. Still, this story was an essential lesson about the need for public support for initiatives.
Indigenous Populations in Environmental History
The issue of Indigenous populations has a critical place in environmental history. The prerequisites for the emergence of the frontier were the anxieties of England’s Indian allies for autonomy and respect for their territories (Allosso 80). In support of the Indians, the British Federation issued a proclamation establishing a western colonial frontier along the Appalachian Mountains.
At the same time, the frontier territory was divided into six square miles on a grid, which facilitated trade in farm products in particular (Allosso 91). Despite the federal power of Congress, the Western settlement was a positive development. The three Ordinances opened the door to self-government. Still, in addition to establishing the grid and land sales systems, one of the most important provisions was abolishing slavery in the territories.
However, Indian history had more tragic twists and turns. Undoubtedly, the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, greatly strengthened the country materially and strategically, and gave a powerful impetus to westward expansion (Herzog 309). At the same time, it divided the native population, and a few years later, Jackson issued an act that can be considered destructive.
The act was supposed to begin a process of voluntary land exchange that would result in Indians moving to uninhabited lands west of the Mississippi (Rome 9). However, American authorities intended to solve a purely capitalist problem – to free up costly land. Such a decision caused starvation and death to the innocent population at a moment’s notice.
Colonial Hydrology
Undoubtedly, water is an indispensable resource that maintains the standard of living and influences many biological and economic processes. Ecological history can be especially valuable for colonial hydrology as, with its help, it is possible to establish certain regularities and understand the tendencies of their future development (Pastore et al. 8800).
However, several obstacles stand in the way of this process, one of which is man himself. Due to the significant changes in hydrological systems, there are numerous gaps in the research, which has led to a search for other applications of environmental history to colonial hydrology. Archives and historical literature from various fields may be the source that sheds light on colonial hydrology.
The Common Mill Corporation
The development of the system of large corporations, which at some point in history became the reason for understanding that society was more than people, deserves special attention. It is important to remember that the early corporations benefited society, with corporations having a public responsibility. However, this has changed considerably, and the first step toward this was interpreting the mill law. In Massachusetts, the mill laws dated back to 1713, allowing mills to endanger other landowners’ property only for the public good (Allosso 117).
Over time, however, the provision was revised as the industry itself, at some point, began to be considered a public good. Certainly, corporations provided employment opportunities for numerous families while significantly contributing to the economy and the development of cities (Allosso 121). However, this approach was not rational for the environment, and the consequences are obvious now.
Conclusion
The premise of environmental history is to study the natural world not simply as the backdrop against which the events of human history unfold but as a dynamic force complicit in creation and development processes. Numerous revolutions, wars, racism, and human activities have affected the ecosystem, but most changes can be considered destructive. Therefore, averting the worst effects of climate change will require rapid, far-reaching, and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.
Works Cited
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