Today, an Akkadian epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh is regarded as the earliest surviving great literary work. The poem describes the life of Gilgamesh who was an actual historical king of an ancient Sumerian city-state of Uruk, deified post-mortem by its citizens. Of special interest for scholars is the second part of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which the main protagonist sets out on a search for eternal life. The reason why this part of the poem attracts a great deal of attention in literary studies is its possible influence on a much later literary masterpiece, the Odyssey. In the Odyssey, the focal point of narration is a long, strenuous journey as Odysseus sets out on a ten-year trip back home to Ithaka after the Trojan war. It is important to discuss the semblance between the two fundamental literary works to understand why the creation of the Odyssey was directly dependent on the Akkadian epic poem.
Not all scholars were in favor of the version that the Odyssey was written under the influence of the Epic of Gilgamesh. As explained by Kozlowski, some critics denied the existence of a direct relationship, appealing to the common narrative motives regarding heroism and comradeship in many cultures (12). Others were questioning the factual evidence: it was difficult to tell whether Homer, the author of the Odyssey, ever read the Epic of Gilgamesh to use it as a source of inspiration. Many literary works indeed share similarities: almost every world culture puts forward their ideas about life as a journey, search for eternal life, and overcoming obstacles. Arguably, the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey are best understood not as a “sum of parallels” (Kozlowski 12). Another better, more workable approach is to describe the shared understanding of the universe in both texts and the human’s place in them.
The integral theme of both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey is a journey that is not just physical commuting between two points but cosmic traveling. Marinatos points out that no attempt to map Odysseus’ geographical journey would yield any success, despite the actual historical existence of his final destination (387). The scholar argues that when Odysseus approaches the edges of the Earth (Perata ges), he reaches the two cosmic junctures – the East and the West. There is one more axis, the vertical one, to the spatiality of the Odyssey formed by the underworld and the “island of the sun (Homer 167).”
Marinatos argues that Ancient Greek cosmological mythology borrows a lot from Near-East mythologies such as Egyptian and Akkadian (386). This is where it is possible to draw a parallel between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey. As shown by Marinatos, in the Near East, the universe was seen as a multilayered entity divided into heaven, earth, and the underworld (389). The Epic of Gilgamesh shows the presence of a vertical axis similar to the one found in Odyssey: the mountain Mashu connects the underworld and the firmament. To sum up, it is safe to say that the mythology of the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey paint a similar picture of the Universe and its “geography.”
However, the two great literary works are not about the geographical properties of a journey: what they focus on is the profound meaning that each person derives from setting out on it. At some point, Odysseus reaches Calypso’s island of “darkness” situated at the Western cosmic juncture, probably signifying the place where the sun sets (Homer 100). Calypso leads Odysseus to his place of transit into the real world, the Phaeacians. The character cannot return to Scheria, the home of the Phaeacians, after leaving the place; he is not even able to memorize the route. The same happens to Gilgamesh when he arrives at the island of the wise man Utnapishtim. Once Gilgamesh sails off, he understands that there is no way back. These two fragments have a lot in common: they show that life’s journey is irreversible, and life is lived forward and cannot be winded back.
Another common theme that brings the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey is the theme of guidance and learning. Utnapishtim instructs Gilgamesh on the limits of the human condition. The wise man tears down his ambitions to find eternal life by evading death. Instead, Utnapishtim insists that Gilgamesh needs to reject his egotistic aspirations to become a balanced king and serve his kingdom well (Empson 248). Similarly, the king of Ithaca and one of the heroes of the Trojan War, Odysseus learns humility during his journey. He realizes not only the fragility of humankind but also his frailty. The character is reminded of mortality when he reaches the Land of the Dead and learns that his mother has passed away. It is an emotional moment that almost breaks the character but makes him come out of the situation wiser.
Indeed, guidance is needed in every person’s life, especially when it is marked with as many obstacles as Gilgamesh and Odysseus had to face and overcome. Again, the reader can easily find parallels between the nature of hardships encountered by the two kings. Roughly, they can be divided into two categories: standing straight in the face of adversity and resisting temptation. Gilgamesh and Enkidu have to face Humbaba, a scary monster appointed by Enkil to guard the Cedar forest. In a somewhat similar manner, Odysseus and his crew encounter Polyphemus, one of Poseidon’s sons, and a cyclops who the main character defeats by blinding his only eye.
Arguably, withstanding or caving into temptations such as raw female sexual power is a bit more ambiguous. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, dangerous female sexual desire is embodied in Shamhat while in the Odyssey, it is Calypso who almost sets Odysseus off the track with her charms. Shamhat, a sacred prostitute, does not target Gilgamesh: instead, she directs her power at Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s loyal companion. In the poem, Shamhat exposes herself to Enkidu in the forest, and the formerly wild man becomes civilized through continued sexual intercourse. In the seven days of their love feast, “he had seen everything, had experienced all emotions, / from exaltation to despair (The Epic of Gilgamesh 21).” In essence, the woman taught him how basic human urges can become a creative force serving more sophisticated goals. In contrast, the Odyssey’s Calypso’s charms are deadly and keep Odysseus captive in the underworld with her for seven years. Indeed, temptation by strong femininity is interpreted differently in the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey. The former sees it as transformative while the latter – as inherently perilous.
The final question is the meaning of the journey of Gilgamesh and Odysseus. Both characters not only failed to find what they were looking for but even rejected it. Odysseus escaped Calypso’s trap despite her offering him eternal life if only he became her husband. Gilgamesh, too, listened to the advice of Utnapishtim and Siduri, both of which denied the possibility of evading death forever. Siduri reasoned that “the life [he pursues] [he will] not find when the Gods created mankind (The Epic of Gilgamesh 34).” There is a moralistic aspect to both texts: even though they are chronologically detached from this day and age, the lessons they contain stand true even today. Indeed, a person, even if they are a king or a hero, does not find what they want but what they need when they dare to set out on a mystical journey of their life.
The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey are ancient literary masterpieces that are often discussed together in scholarly circles. The opinions on their relationship vary; yet, it is hard to deny that the two works share a common understanding of the world and a person’s life journey in it. Firstly, there are parallels in how the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey draw a picture of the cosmos. Secondly, they show life as a mystical journey where a person’s loyalty, resilience, and strength are continuously tested through hardships and temptations. Life is seen as an irreversible sequence of events each of which can serve as a valuable lesson. The aftermath of a cosmic journey is not finding eternal life as both Gilgamesh and Odysseus wanted but realizing their legacy during their lifetime, the curse, and the blessing of human mortality.
Works Cited
Empson, William. “Reading the Epic of Gilgamesh.” The Journal of General Education, 1976, pp. 241-254.
Homer. The Odyssey. Collector’s Library, 2011.
Kozlowski, Jan M. “Gilgamesh’s Quest for Immortality (Gilg. IX–XI) as a Narratological Pattern for Odysseus’s nostos (Od. V, 1–XIII, 187).” Eirene. Studia Graeca et Latina, vol. 1, no. 54, 2018, pp. 11-31.
Marinatos, Nanno. “The cosmic journey of Odysseus.” Numen, vol. 48, no. 4, 2001, pp. 381-416.
The Epic of Gilgamesh. Penguin UK, 1973.