Investigating the Nexus Between Human Trafficking and National Security

Executive Summary

This research paper investigates the nexus between human trafficking and national security from an economics perspective. The main research variables investigated in the inquiry relate to the global sociopolitical issues, economic interests underpinning the trade, and health factors affecting national security. The secondary research method was used to gather data published in the last five years. The research process involved searching for scholarly research materials discussing human trafficking and national security issues, especially in the US. Data was obtained from three databases, including Sage Journals, Emerald Insight, Google Scholar, Springer, and Google Books. The keywords used in this search included human trafficking and national security. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study were based on the publication date. Materials that were older than five years were excluded from the review due to limited relevance to human traffic issues affecting contemporary society.

Therefore, those that were published from the year 2017 were included in the study. The researcher lay emphasis on gathering credible sources of scholarly data, including books, journals, and credible websites. The credibility of these websites was ascertained by authorship because the researcher lay emphasis on using online information from institutions, organizations, and government agencies. Overall, this research process yielded the several thematic areas. Additionally, it was revealed that the body of literature on the research topic is still underdeveloped. However, three hypotheses relating to the three above-mentioned variables were affirmed because public health, sociopolitical factors, and economic interests moderate the effect of human trafficking on victims.

Introduction

Background of the study

Human trafficking is a social and security problem for authorities worldwide. It is a form of organized crime enabled by people working as sourcing, facilitating, and destination agents. They enable people to move from one jurisdiction to another in search of work or employment opportunities illegally (Jurek & King, 2020). Most victims of human trafficking end up scammed or forced to work jobs that they did not intend to do. Relative to its abusive nature, authorities refer to human trafficking as the sale of people or humans mainly for exploitative purposes (Atkinson & Hamilton-Smith, 2022). In this regard, the economics of human trafficking plays a critical role in facilitating the trade because demand for human services in the market creates a supply for the same.

It is estimated that human trafficking is the third largest form of organized crime in the world. Its participants are estimated to make in excess of $150 billion annually from this trade (Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 2022). Again, based on its abusive nature, critics argue that the market has a rampant violation of human rights because of the tendency to treat human beings as commodities (U.S. Department of Justice, 2022). In this regard, human trafficking activities do not contribute to the development of a nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Instead, they create a loss in this measure because the money generated from the business is often used to fund illegal activities.

Comparatively, the concept of national security is commonly cited by many authors but rarely conveying the same meaning. For example, some researchers have confused national security to mean global security, while others consider it a subjective term in the same way as they do peace and identity in international political theory (Osisanya, 2022). In the context of this study, national security means the context of a society maintaining its authentic identity. It implies avoiding troublesome people or situations that may comprise the overall peace and security of others.

National security is an important concept in the realization of peace and defense objectives of a country. It equally outlines costly mistakes made by generals and the aftermath of their decisions in the end. Some of these mistakes have been too painful to remember while other people have no emotional attachment to them whatsoever. This is why peace is often unpredictable and difficult to understand how to maintain it, especially in fractured societies where protagonists fight for power and control (Press Books, 2022). Despite these categorizations of national security, security is an important feature of natural justice even when a person does not need it. However, for purpose if this probe, it has been included in this paper to highlight the need or better coordination and management of government and state functions to uphold security, which is the bedrock of a country’s economic activities.

The content outlined above defines important concepts of national security and human trafficking. However, little is known regarding how the two concepts interact. Based on this statement, this research paper presents the argument that human trafficking is a threat to national security because of its potential to facilitate the illegal entry of criminals in safe societies. It is also argued that human trafficking worsens people general health outcomes and creates a pathway for unscreened people to enter a country through an unmanned border. Therefore, the risk of a worsening health outcomes is true with human trafficking victims (Wagner et al., 2019). A nexus between human trafficking, the sale of human organs, terrorism, prostitution, and forced child labor is established to support this thesis.

The study explains similarities between different forms of human trafficking and their impact on national security. The evidence supporting this thesis is based on the routine activities theory, which suggests that crime thrives when the right conditions are present. Therefore, it is assumed that criminals deliberately engage in crime after weighing the cost and benefits of doing so. This argument is relevant in understanding the relationship between human trafficking and security in this study.

Statement of the Research Problem

The statement of the present research problem is based on the nature of the relationship between traffickers and national security agencies. This analysis is based on the causes and effects of human trafficking on individual and national security programs. Figure 1.1 below highlights the nexus between human and national security challenges.

As highlighted above, human security overlaps with national security interests to create an overriding sphere of peace when the balance is achieved. This equilibrium is desirable in an uncertain environment where forces relating to business and politics conspire to foster human trafficking (Munro-Kramer et al., 2022). In this analysis, it is important to acknowledge that trafficking people leads to forced labor, prostitution, or slavery (Cruyff et al., 2021). However, maintaining an environment where these vices do not exist is often elusive because many people are vulnerable to traffickers around the world. According to the International Labor Organization, more than 24.9 million people have fallen victim to transnational organized crime (Ecker, 2022). Most of these people – about 20 million – are trafficked to provide compulsory labor, while another four million of them are forced into prostitution (Ecker, 2022). In this regard, human trafficking comes with high social and political costs to victims, their families, and the communities they hail from.

It is critical to view human trade from its social cost to understand the extent of the impact of human trafficking on societies. A social analysis of the crime leads to the identification of its negative effects on victims. Particularly, it exposes targets to physical and psychological abuse, which may manifest in acute emotional and health problems (U.S. Department of Justice, 2022). Consequently, human trafficking has been linked with serious mental illnesses and poor negative health outcomes, such as Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV), Autoimmune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), drug abuse, and forced marriages (Munro-Kramer et al., 2022; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). Therefore, individuals and societies are affected by crime in equal measure.

From a security perspective, human trafficking threatens physical and virtual boundaries that authorities have put in place to secure and prevent the unauthorized entry of people across jurisdictions (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022). This breach creates vulnerabilities in physical national security systems because criminals and terrorists could use the same networks to traffic people who intend to commit crimes (Fouladvand & Ward, 2019). This statement explains the close relationship between human trafficking and national security. The nexus between human trafficking and security highlights the need to understand their structures and operations. This investigation is important and relevant to contemporary society due to rapid technological change, which has led to the evolution of crime. Particularly, it is important to explore the economic systems supporting human trafficking and potential solutions that could be developed to minimize its intensity.

Problem Statement

It is believed that human trafficking is an old trade in the same manner as drug trafficking and prostitution are deemed to be ancient businesses. However, what is new to contemporary academic literature is the rapid growth of human trafficking due to technology use and the spread of the internet (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022). Particularly, the growth and continued acceptability of social media, mobile applications, and global financial systems in society have led to an upsurge of cases involving human trafficking (Hu, 2022). This change stems from the transformational nature of technology on the structure and operations of organized crime networks (Beverungen et al., 2019). Modern technological methods have received some of the highest mentions in contemporary literature for transforming how crime networks communicate or interact with their victims (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022; Hu, 2022). Notably, technology has been identified as a catalyst for changing how criminals recruit victims, advertise their services, and even blackmail people.

Technology has facilitated human trafficking in the same manner as it has enabled authorities to investigate associated cases. For example, it has been used to conduct surveillance on potential criminals, thereby enabling authorities to dismantle criminal networks (Europol, 2022). At the same time, it has made it possible for authorities to collect digital evidence on traffickers, thereby improving the quality of cases brought against traffickers (Europol, 2022). Thus, from an investigative perspective, technology use has improved the capacity of authorities to investigate and prosecute linked cases. Overall, this analogy insinuates that technology has a significant effect on human trafficking and security.

The growth and development of human trafficking in the digital era has led to an evolution of crime to create new formats of trade that were hitherto unknown to authorities. This problem has made it difficult to understand the full scope of human trafficking or the potential means through which it could be mitigated (Hu, 2022). This gap in investigative plans has led to the under-equipment of authorities and policymakers in addressing the challenges posed by crime (Jurek & King, 2020). Broadly, technological growth has created one driver of change in the human trafficking space.

Recent human health challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic have had a similar effect on societies. Notably, the high numbers of human trafficking cases reported from the year 2020 have been partly driven by the health pandemic (Schroeder et al., 2022). It has had this impact by increasing the number of vulnerable families to financial exploitation. Consequently, low-income members of society are exposed and vulnerable to agents of the human trafficking trade.

International organizations have drawn attention to the effects of global health pandemics on national security. For example, the World Bank observes that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of people living in extreme poverty by 70 million (Bigio & Welch, 2022). This figure represents an increase in the number of families around the world who are vulnerable to exploitation. Most of these people may fall prey to risky job offers, online scammers, high-interest loans, and low-paying jobs to survive, and human trafficking thrives under these conditions (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022). Based on this assessment, it is prudent to address this problem by investigating it as a national security issue.

Purpose and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this investigation is to understand the ways that human trafficking affects national security in the US. This research goal makes it possible to understand the nexus between human trafficking and national security interests in the US. It stems from discussions that have explored the extent of the impact of crime on human societies (Foot et al., 2021). However, unlike other studies that have examined the problem from geopolitical and security angles, the current investigation adopts an economic perspective to the analysis. To this end, the following objectives will be achieved at the end of this investigation.

1. To explore the nature of economic interests in abating human trafficking in the US.
2. To investigate the link between health costs of human trafficking and national security in the US.
3. To identify global sociopolitical issues enabling the trade of humans in the US.
4. To propose economic solutions for minimizing human trafficking in the US.

The objectives highlighted above are designed to highlight the relationship between human trafficking and current security challenges affecting the US. The focus is on the economic aspects of the crime with a unique mention of health and global sociopolitical challenges as key pillars of national security interests in America. Therefore, the underlying premise for the development of the above-mentioned research objectives is to establish the nexus between human trafficking and security challenges affecting the US.

Rationale of the Study

The current investigation, which seeks to explain the nexus between human trafficking and national security challenges, stems from an appreciated role of institutional performance and health development as functions of national security advancements. The relationship between these variables stems from the important role played by improved health outcomes in promoting sustainable development (World Health Organization, 2022). Therefore, in the context of the current investigation, health and institutional performance are regarded as national security issues. They are addressed from an economics perspective by highlighting the monetary interests that keep each player active in the human trafficking trade (Muthuri & Kirigia, 2020). It is assumed that identifying the economic gaps and benefits that players in this business exploit to further their interests will contribute to the development of efforts to dismantle such networks.

The findings of this study will be useful to the expansion of the current body of work on human trafficking and national security. As will be highlighted ion subsequent sections of this document, the relationship between human trafficking and national security is not well developed. Therefore, the current body of research will improve this area of the study because by explaining the place of the current investigation in daily political discourse of a country. The findings of this investigation will also contribute towards the development of economic solutions for current world problems. This is true because the current line of question adopted in the current inquiry is based on the use of economic solution to solve some of the world’s most pressing problems.

Definitions

• Gross Domestic Product: This is the total estimated value of goods and services in an economy. The measure is often used by economists to compare the wealth of nations and predict human development outcomes.
• Transnational Organized Crime: In the context of this study, the term transnational organized crime will be used interchangeably with national security. It means the occurrence of human trafficking activities across international borders and involving multiple players distributed around different parts of the world (U.S National Security Council, 2020).
• Prostitution: The act of sex commercialization.

Limitations of the Study

The limitations of a study refer to factors that are out of the control of a researcher when developing findings. In the context of the current investigation, the main limitations of the study were the date of publication of the research materials used to develop the findings of this study as well as their typologies. In the latter area of analysis, only books, journals, and credible websites were included in the current study. Credible websites contained institutional web reports, national safety and crime awareness documents, publications developed by law enforcement agencies, health agency reports, and documents prepared by human rights groups. These types of materials were included in the current probe because of their relevance and validity to the topic of discussion. Furthermore, most of the agencies preparing these reports have done extensive research on human trafficking across international borders and are in possession of a wealth of evidence on the research topic.

Method

In this section of the analysis, techniques adopted by the researcher to obtain primary research data are discussed. The format for the review is based on the research onion framework (Lê & Schmid, 2022). It suggests that five frameworks of review should be discussed when exploring techniques adopted by researchers in collecting data from respondents. The six levels include research philosophy, approach to theory development, design, method, time analysis, and techniques/procedures, which include data collection and analysis methods.

Four types of philosophies are applicable in research studies and they include positivism, interpretivism, post-modernism, and pragmatism (Lê & Schmid, 2022). Based on an overview of the merits and demerits of each technique, the pragmatism approach was adopted in the current probe. This decision was informed by the researcher’s desire to develop strategies that would enhance the relationship between human trafficking and national security outcomes. In other words, the pragmatism research approach helped to identify what works best for the success of the industry (Lê and Schmid, 2022). This framework of review made it possible to find innovative ways of addressing the market challenges of pharmaceutical supply in low-income neighborhoods.

Comparatively, the approach to theory development adopted in this investigation refers to the methodology chosen by the researcher to develop the findings. There are two main approaches to theory development – deductive and inductive techniques (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The deductive method is designed to test specific theories, while inductive approaches generate theories (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Based on this difference, the current probe aligns with the inductive approach to theory development. Its positioning in the study is informed by the desire to develop strategies that would complement the success of the proposed business idea (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Therefore, similar to the manner the inductive method generates theories, the deductive method was used to analyze the human trafficking market

In terms of research methodology, two main frameworks are adopted in academic studies – qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative approach is applicable in study contexts that involve subjective variables (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Comparatively, the quantitative technique is adopted by researchers to measure variables that can be quantified. Alternatively, these two methodological approaches could be combined or used independently to meet the objectives of a study. Given that the topic of the investigation is on bridging an existing market gap, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative techniques was adopted in the study. The justification for using both techniques is rooted in the exploratory nature of the project. For example, meeting consumer expectations is a qualitative aspect of the investigation, while estimating the financial cost of stopping trafficking is a quantitative discussion. The mixed methods framework helped to accommodate both sets of data in the study.

In terms of strategy development, researchers can employ several schemes to meet the objectives of an investigation. Common strategies include surveys, case studies, archival research, ethnography, and action research (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The decision to select the most appropriate strategy should be informed by the importance of maintaining consistency of approach across various levels of methodological analysis. To this end, the archival research technique was employed as the main research strategy. It helped the researcher to get a sample of industry views regarding the research topic. The publication date of the research materials reviewed in this investigation formed part of the limitations of this study. Publications that were older than five years (2017-2022) were excluded from the analysis to obtain updated information for scrutiny. Therefore, it was assumed that research materials that were published before 2017 were less relevant to the current national security issues facing the US, compared to those which were published later. This information was useful in tweaking the research strategy to have maximum impact on the market.

Alternatively, the time framework for analyzing a study’s findings outlines the modalities adopted by a researcher when timing the sequence of data collection. The two major formats for time series analysis include the longitudinal and cross-sectional time formats (Lê and Schmid, 2022). The cross-sectional time series framework allows researchers to collect data at once, as opposed to the longitudinal technique which requires researchers to gather data at different intervals (Lê and Schmid, 2022). Based on these differences, the researcher used the longitudinal time series approach because it was important to capture the views of the target audience at once. This strategy enabled the researcher to create a snapshot assessment of the trafficking industry, which were then used to create homogenous strategies for future planning. The cross-sectional approach was inapplicable to the investigation because consumer behavior changes across time. Therefore, it was difficult to obtain a snapshot assessment of their views on the proposed business at different points in time.

Theoretical Framework

The routine activities theory is the main theoretical framework for the present study. Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen were the original developers of the model, and they did so to explain crime rate fluctuations in 1940-1970 US (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The history of the theory similarly dates back to the post-world-war II era when it was used to explain an increase in crime rates despite a sustained period of economic growth. The routine activities theory suggested that this outcome happened because prosperity created new opportunities for crime to occur (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The example of increased automobile use during the post-world-war II era was used to explain this idea.

It suggested that the increased use of cars created new opportunities for people to get away after committing a crime. At the same time, it noted that automobiles created a heightened sense of safety for users who would otherwise be victims of robbery on the street (Mitsilegas et al., 2019). The same argument is used to justify the use of the routine activity theory in this study because technology has changed the human trafficking trade. Given that the focus of the investigation will mainly be on understanding national security issues in the digital era, the routine activities theory will be used to explain the influence of technology in the same way as the car example outlined above.

The routine activity theory has its roots embedded in criminology studies because the model was developed in a law enforcement environment. This is why proponents of the theory suggest that theory is a product of environmental influences (Daly, 2020). Therefore, its premise is based on the ecological systems that support crime occurrence as the first area of a survey in crime analysis (Kumar et al., 2021). In this regard, the routine activity theory suggests that three factors are likely to be present before a crime occurs – an accessible target, a motivated offender, and the absence of an intervening force (Australian State of New South Wales, 2022). This theory has been used to prevent crime by identifying critical factors to consider when developing strategies for crime prevention.

The routine activities theory was justifiably used in the current study because human trafficking is an international crime. Its occurrence is contingent on the presence of conditions supporting crime (Pearson, 2020). Juxtaposing these conditions to the framework of the present study reveals that the availability of vulnerable people, the absence/presence of weak institutions to intervene, and the existence of motivated offenders create a perfect blend of circumstances for human trafficking to occur (Vellani, 2021). The three conditions outlined above are equally linked to the forces of demand and supply, which regulate the trade of human beings.

Subject to the comparison drawn above, the motivated offender is the one who creates the demand for human trafficking activities. Alternatively, the presence of vulnerable people creates the supply for human trafficking. At the same time, the role played by government authorities, intergovernmental organizations, and human rights groups in preventing crime are hereby noted as the intervening force in human trafficking (Australian State of New South Wales, 2022). Their effectiveness in managing the supply and demand sides of the trade determines their performance and the impact of human trafficking on national security. Therefore, the routine activities theory links the role of governments as interventionists in transnational organized crime. It compares their role to the forces of demand and supply that support trade in the first place.

Research Hypotheses

As highlighted in this section of the study, four objectives guide the present investigation. They strive to explore the effects of economic interests, health factors, and global sociopolitical issues abating human trafficking and affecting national security in the US. Collectively, these areas of analysis are intended to propose solutions for minimizing human trafficking in the country from an economics perspective. Proposals that will be made in this study are consistent with the routine activity theory because they address supply, demand, and intervention forces in human trafficking. Again, the economic interests of various players in the human trafficking trade represent the demand side of the trade, while the effects of the trade on victims present the supply side of it.

In the same breadth of analysis used to assign the role of economic actors and victims in international trade, the role of global sociopolitical forces in influencing the actions of authorities in human trafficking represents the effectiveness of interventionist actions in the value chain. This three-pronged approach to understanding the research strategy is consistent with the theory of the routine activity theory, which mentions three conditions for crime to occur – the presence of a victim, aggressor, and a regulatory agency. The present investigation addresses the research issue from these three perspectives. Hypotheses that support the investigation are built on this foundation, and they are outlined as follows:

Economic Interests of Human Trafficking Actors

As highlighted in this document, human trafficking is a complex problem. This study investigates it from an economic angle, thereby justifying the inclusion of the economic interests of the actors involved as a critical area of analysis. This line of thought is supported by research investigations, which have highlighted the place of various players, including buyers, recruiters, and vulnerable people in the human trafficking trade (Heynen & van der Meulen, 2022; Hu, 2022). In this area of analysis, their economic interests are converged and investigated to understand their role in abating crime. The problem with human trafficking is also the same the problem associate with national security as a concept.

This area of the analysis will form part of the demand-side analysis of human trafficking. Nonetheless, given that a majority of scholars mentioned above have argued that the economic interests of various players supersede those of other actors, it can be hypothesized that the financial gains of human trafficking affect the intensity of the vice and, by extension, the security interests of a nation. This statement forms the foundation for the development of the first research hypothesis for the study, which appears below.

H1: Economic interests have a moderating effect on the relationship between human trafficking and national security.

Impact of Health Factors Posed by Human Trafficking on National Security

National security is a complex term that involves human health outcomes. This statement justifies the inclusion of health-related indicators as a conduit for understanding the relationship between human trafficking and national security. These issues primarily relate to the supply side of the trade as it explores the effects of the business on the well-being of its victims. Scholars have adopted a similar understanding of the effects of human trafficking on its targets, but most scholars have adopted a psychological health perspective (Beauregard & Kazemi, 2020; USAID, 2022). Their evidence indicates that most victims suffer from cases of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), rape, unwanted pregnancy, death, violence, and domestic abuse, just to mention a few (Pearson, 2020). The link between these health-related outcomes of human trafficking with national security has been established in academic discourses supporting a healthy nation.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic explains the link between health and national security. Climate change and infectious diseases have also received mentions in the same capacity because of their potential effects on the livelihoods of families around the world (USAID, 2022). Their ability to create conflict or instability in society gives credence to the inclusion of health-related factors in the current probe. These conflicts can be explained by the conflict theory, which captures exposes how power is structured and shared (Press Books, 2022). Therefore, stakeholders who fail to show up could fail in the end. Thus, in the context of the scholarly works identified above, it can be deduced that the health cost of human trafficking affects national security (Beauregard & Kazemi, 2020). This statement forms the premise for the development of the second hypothesis underpinning the current investigation, which appears below.

H2: Health factors moderate the effects of human trafficking on national security.

Role of Global Sociopolitical Forces in Moderating Human Trafficking Interventions

Human trafficking operates within a global trade framework where people from one part of the globe are transported to another to work. Scholars have highlighted several sociopolitical reasons why this business occurs, but poverty, lack of job opportunities, ignorance, and cultural factors have emerged as key drivers (Bello & Olutola, 2022). These forces are classified in this research paper as global sociopolitical factors impacting human trafficking and national security. Terrorism also emerges as a key consideration in this analysis because it is feared as one of the primary products of human trafficking (Villacampa & Torres, 2019). Given that several researchers have mentioned these geopolitical forces in the context of human trafficking, it is hypothesized that global sociopolitical issues moderate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at curbing human trafficking as shown below.

H3: Global sociopolitical issues moderate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at curbing human trafficking.

Summary of Remaining Chapters

This research paper consists of four key chapters, which underpin the investigation. The first one is the introductory section, which sets the stage for the study by providing the background of the investigation, its guiding principles, and the key issues to be investigated. The main pointers mentioned in this part of the research include the objectives guiding the investigation and the main hypotheses to be tested in the probe. The second chapter is the literature review section, and it analyzes the current body of scholarly works underpinning the current probe. The pieces of evidence developed in this section will demonstrate current trends in the literature and the position of the current probe in the contemporary body of scholarly work. At the end of this chapter, the research gap justifying the current probe will be outlined. The pieces of evidence to be investigated will be categorized into themes and categories of analysis. The goal is to identify related and unrelated bodies of scholarly works and their relevance to the current probe.

The third chapter of the study will highlight key findings that will be generated from the present investigation. The results developed in this section of the analysis will be related to the objectives of the study and later to the hypotheses. The last chapter of this research paper is the conclusion section, and it summarizes the findings. At the same time, it provides an ethical reflection of the procedures adopted to complete the research as well as recommendations that may be adopted to address the research topic. The pieces of evidence summarized in this section of the study will be useful in understanding the implications of the current study to mitigate human trafficking and national security challenges.

Literature review

This section of the study summarizes and investigates the existing body of literature that has explored the research topic. The analysis is divided according to different themes and subthemes as they emerged in the review. Three main areas of analysis materialized from this process. They centered on exploring the role of human health outcomes, global sociopolitical issues, and economic interests in human trafficking. These overriding themes of the investigation formed the framework for the present review. Broadly, this chapter discusses the above-mentioned issues in the context of the global human trafficking activities. It also outlines the main theoretical framework that guiding this investigation, including the position of the current research in the existing body of scholarly research. However, before delving into the details of this analysis, it is important to disclose different types of human trafficking and their occurrence.

Types of Human Trafficking

The preliminary evidence gathered in section 1.0 above suggests that human trafficking is a complex form of organized crime. According to the Human Rights Commission (2022), the three major types of trafficking are prostitution, forced labor, and debt bondage. This classification encompasses different subindustries that exist within the larger framework of human trafficking activities.

Sex Trafficking

As highlighted above, the method of classifying human trafficking activities in this study is dependent on the nature of industry that the trafficked victims end up. Sex trafficking is one of them and it refers to a common form of prostitution where people cross international boundaries to offer sexual services in exchange of money (PRESSAT, 2022). The trade is usually organized in a manner where people from one country are transported into another and forced to work as sex slaves. Data that has been gathered from more than 170 countries reveal that, globally, about 30 million people fall victims of sex trafficking annually (PRESSAT, 2022). A keen investigation of the same figure shows that the US is a hub for this trade because 50% of all sex trafficking cases in the world occur here (PRESSAT, 2022). Texas and California have the highest number of reported cases in the country with other states recording increases in incidents (PRESSAT, 2022). Therefore, although rarely talked about, sex trafficking is a common form of human trafficking.

Gender differences influence the effects of sex trafficking on victims. For example, prostitution disproportionately affects women and children because they comprise the majority of trafficked victims (Human Rights Commission, 2022). These people are often lured by the promise of securing job opportunities in other countries only to find out that they have been enlisted for prostitution (UK Metropolitan Police, 2022). In the US, people who are under the age of 18 years and take part in commercial sex activities are engaged in a form of human trafficking activity (Human Rights Commission, 2022). Therefore, the threshold for classifying vulnerable populations as “trafficked victims” is low. This labelling makes it possible to define what constitutes human trafficking in the first place.

Trafficking people for sexual exploitation is a desperate form of manipulation. It often happens covertly and without the knowledge of victims (Human Rights Commission, 2022). In fact, experts estimate that the number of unreported cases could be higher than current figures because less than 1% of sex trafficking survivors are documented (PRESSAT, 2022). A similar small percentage of cases are heard in court, while less than 5% of them end up in a conviction (PRESSAT, 2022). These statistics demonstrate the difficulty of proving human trafficking cases in court.

Victims of sex trafficking vary with age, educational background, and gender differences. Women and children account for the largest percentage of victims that have been trafficked for sex. Children account for about 20% of this number and in some parts of the world, such as Africa and the Mekong region, the percentage could be higher (Østerby, 2022). Several reasons have been identified to explain why certain countries have disproportionately higher victims of sex trafficked victims than others. The argument proposed to justify this statement has been that predators have exploited individual vulnerabilities to convince victims to participate in the trade. Some of the most common reasons given to justify this behavior have been drug use, death of a family member, economic hardships, abandonment, unstable housing, and homelessness, just to mention a few.

Forced labor

In the context of the present investigation, forced labor activities related to human trafficking should be distinguished from other types of exploitative labor where the victims consent to the vice. In the present context of study, forced labor that is associated with human trafficking refers to activities where victims are transported from one location to another after being coerced, threatened, or paid. This form of forced labor is consistent with the guidelines adopted by ILO’s Forced Labor Convention – Number 29 (International Labor Office, 2022). Developed in the 1930s, this form of labor lacks informed consent and includes both legal and illegal forms of it. In this legislative framework, member states of the UN are expected to make forced a penal offence (International Labor Office, 2022). They do so to avoid contravening international labor laws.

The earliest pieces of evidence on forced labor date back to the slave trade era of the 1800s. Indeed, as Pearson (2020) points out, the earliest form of human trafficking can be traced to historical American literature during the slave trade era. Agriculture was the main industry impacted by this trade because rich white farm owners often bought slaves who were captured in Africa and transported to work on American plantation farms. This trend fanned widespread economic interest that saw the health of the Agriculture industry become dependent on that of the slave trade.

Slave trafficking from Africa into North America created a web of economic interests that spanned across continents. Collaborators in Africa profited from the trade by capturing or identifying slaves from the indigenous population and selling them off to agents, while the latter made money by organizing their shipment to America. In the new continent, the slaves were later sold to agents of white slave owners who, in turn, auctioned them to new slave owners (Pearson, 2020). At every stage of the value chain, people and companies profited from the trade. Therefore, when it came time to abolish it, it was difficult to disentangle the economic interests of the trade from the moral arguments that surrounded it.

Today, involuntary servitude is one form of human trafficking, which often targets desperate job seekers. The scheme often involves the recruitment of people from low-income countries who are promised to work in foreign lands for better pay. In the end, most targets are forced to work in low-paying unfamiliar industries, or jobs, without their consent, or through deception (Human Rights Commission, 2022). It is estimated that about 20 million people become victims of forced labor this way (International Labor Office, 2022). A majority of these victims are exploited in the private economy with estimates indicating that the percentage of targets exposed to this type of exploitative behavior could be as high as 90% (International Labor Office, 2022). However, the same data suggests that cases involving state-imposed forced labor are declining. This is due to changing public perceptions about incarcerations and the severity of punishments associated with trafficking-related crimes.

As has been demonstrated in this research paper, few industries could be absolved from the rising demand for forced labor. Indeed, all industries are susceptible to the effects of forced labor and about 64% of cases involving this type of employment have been reported in domestic work, construction, and agricultural sectors (Stop the Traffik, 2022). The Asia Pacific region emerges as the global hub for forced labor victims because up to 54% of such cases in the world occur in this region (International Labor Office, 2022). Countries in south, central and eastern Europe are also reported to have the highest prevalence rate of forced labor – 4.5 victims per 1,000 people (International Labor Office, 2022). The hospitality industry, manufacturing sector, and domestic service industries have high concentrations of trafficked victims working in their ranks (EURACTIV &Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2018). It is also estimated that 18% of all forms of forced labor occur in the sex industry. A further 16% of forced labor victims are designated as such by an act of law where they have been found culpable of a crime (Stop the Traffik, 2022).

The hope of looking for these new job opportunities is usually shrouded in the possibility that securing a job position would enable one to send money back home and help their families. The economics of this interdependent relationship keeps most people working in jobs that they did not intend to work to survive. According to the US Department of Justice, forced labor accounts for the highest cases of human trafficking (Pearson, 2020). recruitment agencies

Debt Bondage

Debt bondage is a form of modern slavery because it involves people working against their will to pay off an outstanding debt. Therefore, there is an implied assumption that freedom will be achieved only when money is paid. Debt bondage options are moderated by the laws of a state or government. In India, debt bondage is of a serious nature with millions of people trapped into working jobs that offer little pay or freedom to live fulfilling lives (Human Rights Commission, 2022). These limitations could lead to frustrations and prevent people from realizing their potential. In this regard, debt bondage differs from other types of human trafficking because people’s jobs are used to pay off outstanding amounts of money given off as loans.

Detaining people to pay off debt is an old concept with the earliest evidence of the practice reported in Africa where inhabitants were forced to work in plantations to pay off debts. South Asian countries, including Pakistan and India have had similar arrangements in their economic planning system and it has been used a justification for limiting people’s rights at the behest of the state’s interests. In most of these countries, individuals and families have been bonded into debt bondage systems that have seen an entire generation of people give up their freedom to pay off debt (International Labor Office, 2022). This type of system is accused of being unfair and exploitative because the value of work offered by the person in debt becomes significantly higher than the amount of money they have borrowed and intend to pay (Kotler, 2020). Relative to this assertion, Kampf (2018) argues that people who have been trafficked to pay off certain debts often experience threats, intimidation, and coercion to remind them not to leave.

The intricate web of interests facilitating debt bondage are present in many parts of the world, not only in South Asia and Africa. Those who are seeking job opportunities in the Middle east have also reported the same findings because heightened incidents of debt bondage have been reported that strain the relationship between victims and their facilitators. Hence, debt bondage has been linked with other forms of human trafficking including forced labor (International Labor Office, 2022). In some of these cases, agents working on behalf of their clients choose to facilitate the travel arrangements of some potential clients and have them work for the agents once they reach their desired destination. Most victims have reported that their passports are often taken away by some of these rogue agents, thereby forcing them to work for long periods to pay off the initial investments made to them by the agents (International Labor Office, 2022).

Bonded labor thrives in certain parts of the world because of poor economic conditions. Notably, the lack of employment opportunities forces many families and individuals to enter into such relationships or agreements to escape poverty and hardships back home (Human Rights Commission, 2022). Limited access to justice and education opportunities in some of these countries have made it difficult to escape poverty or the temptation of working with rogue agents to run away from it (International Labor Office, 2022). The need for cash to support daily activities has increased cases of bonded labor because desperate families have had to turn to shylocks and other people who exploit the desperation for financial gain.

The vulnerability of victims of poverty to human trafficking has highlighted the need to understand Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory to explain why there is always a critical mass of vulnerable people ready to be exploited. It suggests that human needs are categorized into five levels according to the order of importance. (Yu, 2022). The highest level is the self-actualization stage while the lowest is the physiological needs stage. These stages are gradually achieved in life and the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory suggest that people fulfil them in the order of importance. Given that physiological needs are at the lowest stage of Maslow’s pyramid. Poverty and bad economic conditions, which most victims of human trafficking endure before reaching their destinations implies that they are at the bottom of the pyramid triangle and need to work to reach their desired level. Based on the principles of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, victims of human trafficking are likely to be found in this group. Overall, this theory explains why people become victims to the human trafficking trade especially if they are poor or have no prospects in life. Poverty is one of the physiological needs of Maslow and its principles state that this level must be satisfied first before others ca be attained.

Global Sociopolitical Issues Affecting Human Trafficking

One of the key issues investigated in this study is the moderating effect of sociopolitical issues on the capacity of authorities to curb human trafficking. These issues affect the effectiveness of law enforcement officials to carry out their duties effectively, thereby creating disparities in human trafficking incidents around the world (Bigio & Welch, 2022). They also influence public response to human trafficking incidences, which may affect the quality of investigations undertaken by law enforcement officials to curb the practice. In this context of assessment, global sociopolitical issues moderate human trafficking through its effects on law enforcement officials and public response to the crime. In the context of this assessment, the main global sociopolitical issues influencing human trafficking from a national security perspective are education, gender, and cultural norms/values.

Education

Overall, based on the systems of human trafficking and national security highlighted in this study, it is important to appreciate the primacy of collective interest as opposed to individual interest. The clash between human trafficking goals and national security objective present a common interest of safety for all. Therefore, there is no need for animosity between the two groups. However, it does not take away the clash of ideas that both camps present. Human trafficking represents individual interest, while national security presents common interests. In states where the collective interest is promoted, there tends to be a standardized normative system of procedural controls that are subject to the subjective norms of the area. Research studies indicate that the collective good is more preferable to the individual god. Their arguments are based on the understanding that no one person can be cleverer than the collective intelligence of a group. These insights indicate that discretion should be applied when choosing the best discretionary approach to follow.

Education is interchangeably used in this context of assessment to mean literacy levels within a population group. Researchers have mentioned it as a moderating variable to predict various socioeconomic indicators, including income levels, health outcomes, and business success (Bigio & Welch, 2022). Its relevance to the field of human trafficking and national security have only been recently confirmed through studies that affirm a link between education levels and victimhood (International Labor Office, 2022). Their views are supported by research evidence which show that most human trafficking victims have low levels of educational attainment. This statement means that low levels of education could potentially be a risk factor in human trafficking. The arguments made to support this claim suggest that many people who have low levels of education also experience limited job opportunities, thereby making the vulnerable to various forms of trafficking, including forced labor or prostitution.

The existing body of evidence also suggests that people who have high education levels are better at detecting or avoiding situations where exploitation or abuse could occur. High levels of education have equally been linked with high levels of income, which prevents people from falling into abject poverty, which could make them vulnerable to traffickers (International Labor Office, 2022). At the same time, these people may develop strange behaviors, which were earlier unknown or unforeseen. These statements affirm that people who have low education levels are disproportionately affected by human trafficking compared to their wealthier counterparts.

Poverty has forced some parents to send their children away into the streets to beg. Others have prompted some mothers to send their daughters to k as sex slaves to bring some money back home. However, it is unclear why such a young girl would do all these to feed their families or why the older people undertaking the trafficking simply do not care.

Gender

Similar to the educational outcomes described above, gender also has a significant effect on human trafficking outcomes. Gender issues in business come from a long way when women could not take part in productive workplace activities because of outdated patriarchal systems (Woo, 2022). Today, women are at par with men in terms of superiority and workplace responsibilities. This involvement of women in new professions marks a positive step in the inclusion of women in positions of higher leadership (Xian et al., 2021). However, integrating both sexes in management positions is not the only way that gender should be celebrated; it can be used to understand consumer patterns and immigrant statuses at different points of entry.

This demographic variable affects the demand and supply sides of human trafficking activities especially in certain types of crime such as sex trafficking and domestic work which predominantly targets women and children. Indeed, as shown the ILO, about 55% of human trafficking victims are female (International Labor Office, 2022). This statement emphasizes the importance of developing solution that address the unique needs of these special demographic groups.

The same gender effects have been observed in other forms of human trafficking besides sex and domestic work abuse. Notably, different forms of forced labor target boys more than girls (International Labor Office, 2022). Victims of debt bondage are also predominantly male (Prasad et al., 2021). This is usually the case in traditional societies where the male, who is ordinarily the head of the household commits himself to a lender in exchange of his labor. The economic hardships experienced by immigrants similarly disproportionately affects more men than women. However, this outcome is moderated by the economic choices available to them in the destination countries. These statistics indicate that although gender is a significant variable in determining human trafficking outcomes, its effects vary with the context of study.

Cultural Norms and Values

People’s cultural norms and values play a significant role in shaping their life choices. The same is true when moderating the impact of human trafficking on national security because culture modifies this relationship as well. However, the nature of modification varies because people have different ways of expressing their personalities. The effects of culture and norms on consumer behavior have been highlighted by researchers such as Mehta et al. (2020).. Some cultures hold retrogressive beliefs and practices, while others are progressive and visionary in approach. The technique that is suitable for the market should largely represent the dominant culture of the people.

The influence of culture on people’s behavior is largely positive but proponents of the consumer theory argue that this model is flawed. They highlight the difficulty of changing culture and norms and are worried that when one is allowed to fester for too long, it may become resistant to change. Governments have had varying experiences and outcomes in trying to address human trafficking challenges. Some of their setbacks have been caused by unsupportive values, norms, and cultural practices that fester in communities. For example, in Southeast Asia, certain forms of human trafficking have thrived because of the establishment of an underlying case system that influences social mobility, thereby creating an underclass of people vulnerable to exploitation (Bigio & Welch, 2022). Particularly, within this system, there is an “untouchable” class of people who lack accountability for their actions.

This type of social hierarchy system has implications on the effectiveness of authorities to curb human trafficking because it exonerates some members of society from accountability. This socially-reinforced and discriminatory model of governance similarly prevents victims from getting justice and allows an unfair cultural system to continue creating two sets of classes of people with different expectations on what authorities should do. The risk associated with this system is the creation of different sets of judicial systems for the same group of people. If allowed to continue unchecked, it could cause social tensions and undermine national security.

Discussions on tradition, social norms, and culture vary across demographics and geographical boundaries. This is why environmental factors have an effect on the capacity of authorities to respond to human trafficking issues. Based on the sociopolitical nature of factors affecting human trafficking, the sex trade has attracted the attention of many scholars because of the subjective nature of this trade. Particularly, varying laws on what constitutes a minor, cultural expectations on women, and impact of social norms on the relationship between men and women has captured the interest of many academicians (Bigio & Welch, 2022). They have argued that child trafficking and prostitution are likely to be affected by the recognition of cultural differences within populations.

Immigration Patterns

As alluded in this paper, human trafficking is a form of organized crime that transcends international borders. This definition means that global sociopolitical issues affecting movements of people across international borders are likely to affect the intensity of human trafficking. It is estimated that immigration affects different forms of human trafficking but those involving forced labor have the highest concentration of immigrants at 44% (International Labor Office, 2022). This statistic means that prior to working against their will, they had crossed international boundaries. Studies that have focused on immigration patterns in Europe reveal that most victims of forced labor are also subjected to debt traps because they borrow money to pay their traffickers and because some of them are unable to do so, they are forced to provide labor (International Labor Office, 2022). However, the choice of destination country and the immigration rules play a significant role in determining the fate of human trafficking victims.

Immigration emerged in this study as one of the most commonly cited incidents with a direct impact on human trafficking. It is linked with poor economic conditions and poverty, which have also been mentioned as additional causes of human trafficking. However, unlike other forms of crime, immigration has attracted the most interest because it involves transporting people across international boundaries. This process creates at least two centers of power involved in the trafficking process with different sets of laws and regulations governing one crime. These centers of power are located at points of exit and entry across international border lines. Such incidences bring to attention the need to look at issues affecting human trafficking holistically. Indeed, it is difficult for one government agency of authority to address such an issue of a global nature.

Relative to the above assertion, some scholars argue that the relationship between countries, communities, and even organizations affect collective efforts to curb human trafficking (Bigio & Welch, 2022). Issues affecting this relationship include, but are not limited to, cultural factors, social barriers of growth, prevailing educational levels, and exposure to alternative behaviors and lifestyles (Bigio & Welch, 2022). Economic differences in societies and their place in creating social order has also impacted the ability of authorities to curb the crime.

Examples have been given of the migrant crisis on the US-Mexican border and the illegal immigration of people from the Northern part of Africa into Europe (Council of the EU and the European Council, 2020). Statistics shared in the last ten years reveals that, since the year 2015, more than 21,000 people have died off the coast of the Mediterranean Sea trying to cross from North African into Europe (Council of the EU and the European Council, 2020). These migration patterns have further led to debates regarding the morality, ethics and economic arguments of allowing undocumented people to compete for job opportunities with locals.

The immigrant problem has threatened to destabilize the peace and security of some countries. For example, observers have expressed their dismay at the laxity of European authorities to control the migrant crisis at its border because it gives room for human traffickers to transport their victims undetected (Council of the EU and the European Council, 2020; Giovanis & Akdede, 2021). For example, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) reported of increased incidences of migrants waiting to be processed at the borders of Greece and Italy have fallen prey to traffickers (EURACTIV &Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2018).

Aid agencies working at borders are also unaware of the activities of some human traffickers because they have focused their roles on providing social welfare services, thereby neglecting the security risks that could exist in refugee camps (Council of the EU and the European Council, 2020). Overall, the findings highlighted above highlight the importance of de-campaigning the effects of globalized socioeconomic factors on human trafficking as a strategy for controlling the trade.

Globalization

Recently, there has been an overwhelming move towards making the world more international than it ever was before. This drive is fueled by the potential that globalization holds in improving human welfare outcomes regardless of one’s location. This change has brought with it good fortunes for those who had planned to exploit such an opportunity. However, people who did not pay attention to the trend are experiencing mixed outcomes. The results are mixed in this way because globalization is a tool that can be used to fight or accept human trafficking. Research studies have indicated that increases in human trafficking activities have corresponded with an increased acceptance of globalization in various political and social fields. This finding makes it possible to draw a relationship between the two outcomes because one could be facilitating the other. A forensic analysis conducted by XZy shows that some people have codependent relationships which is the case between human traffickers and their subjects. Often, this kind of relationship is exploitative and victims are likely to be left scarred.

Globalization has affected different aspects of trade, including human trafficking. It is one of the most powerful forces affecting commerce and has the potential to transform entire industries. Globalization has had a profound impact on human trafficking activities and national security in different levels and degrees of intensity. From a national security perspective, it has led to the emergence of new opportunities for growing the human trafficking trade by opening new opportunities for expansion. Beyond the creation of new markets for goods and services, globalization has also streamlined global operations to make them more competitive and appealing, especially to younger audiences. For example, the availability of cheap labor in the market has made it possible for American companies to obtain cheap labor in China while maintaining the quality of their operations in the end.

Globalization operates within a network of relationships spanning across various social, economic, and political interests, thereby making it difficult for one force to transform an industry. For example, it has been accused of being a catalyst for immigrants and a conduit for companies to obtain cheap labor. Broadly, these conditions create room for exploitation, thereby mainstreaming organized crime patterns. At the same time, the ease through which criminals have used technology to exploit people makes it worrying to authorities.

Globalization equally has the power to moderate the relationship between human trafficking and national security because it has created rural urban migration. This type of movement is commonly adopted in in emerging countries where there are inadequate opportunities for economic growth. Consequently, people leave their rural areas and travel to the city in search of opportunities. Most of these people choose to live in the city to avoid the rural life but because they are not exposed to life’s challenges, they become prey to traffickers who convince them that they will have a better life.

Sociopolitical Factors Affecting National Security

The interest in a nation’s security system is dependent on the ability of the government to guarantee the safety of its citizens. This concept has been included in this analysis because national security is juxtaposed with human trafficking in this study. Despite the lack of a common basis for comparing the two, the concept of security is herein used to explain the potential relationship that exists between the two. The responsibility of maintaining national security often rests with a state or government.

Relationship between Human Trafficking, Public Health, and National Security

National stability is a function of the social and economic wellbeing of the people that make up a nation. In this regard, issues affecting citizen wellbeing need to be analyzed with recognition of the interlocking relationship between human trafficking, public health, and national security concepts. In this section of the review, this relationship is analyzed to reflect the role of government response to health crises and mental disorders as public health crises with implications on national security. Government response will be analyzed within the context of its role as a guardian of safety. In this framework of review, human trafficking and national security concerns are addressed within the scope of the role of the government as an intervening force responsible for moderating issues affecting national security.

Public Health and Implications on Security

The US National Intelligence Council has affirmed the critical role played by health in improving national security after classifying infectious diseases as origins of such threats. This statement stems from research studies which have demonstrated that public health fears lead people to question their existence (Varma & Dutta, 2022). This reaction is negative and has the potential to trigger social unrest if left unchecked. The current body of literature investigating these claims stem from a history of others that have explored bioweapons as a threat to national security. The history of anthrax attacks chemical gas poisoning and hypnosis are some of the fears that highlight the link between public health and national security. Critics have questioned the merits leaders use to declare public health crises as emergencies (Varma & Dutta, 2022). However, most people believe that such reactions are warranted given the importance of health to human survival.

Human trafficking poses a similar health challenge to people because it could facilitate the spread of infectious diseases. An infectious disease if undetected could cause the death or morbidity of many people. This is why health screening agencies are at border controls to screen such risks (Varma & Dutta, 2022). However, the evidence shows that some human traffickers do not use official routes of transport to enter or exit countries; instead, they use undocumented routes, thereby avoiding health surveillance systems and putting entire populations at risk. The concern has been worsened by concerns about the inhumane conditions some trafficked victims live in. the argument has been that the poor living conditions of the victims could incubate diseases that have the potential to affect large populations.

The above-mentioned fears demonstrate the potential security threats that public health emergencies cause. Studies that have delved into this issue deeper suggest that poor investments in health services is equally a security risk. Their arguments stem from the high number of hospitalization cases that followed the COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers have termed this health crisis a national security issue and criticized authorities for having wrong priorities (Varma & Dutta, 2022). in resource allocation. Attention has been drawn to a mismatch in spending patterns by the US government. For example, it spends about 2.4 billion in VIP protection for the President, former presidents, dignitaries and their families, while the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention only receives 330 million in government support (Varma & Dutta, 2022). This figure is only a quarter of what the government pays to protect Very Important People (VIPs). Therefore, it signifies a lack of priority regarding the allocation of state resources. Figure 2.2 below shows the imbalance in federal expenditure between defense and healthcare spending.

The last area of analysis in this study is meant to draw attention to the relationship between public health and safety. Based on the evidence espoused in this document, the last hypothesis developed in this study was affirmed by the findings as well because the relationship between human trafficking and national security is evident. This relationship was affirmed because public health could be a national security issue and vice versa where national security could be a health challenge. The COVID-19 pandemic already demonstrated the exist between public health and human security. The intrigues surrounding this relationship have been highlighted in this paper and they point to the existence of security interests across different levels of social, political and economic governance. Therefore, we affirm the hypothesis saying health factors moderate the effects of human trafficking on national security.

Few research studies have directly linked health emergencies to national security but the relationship is implied in many of such investigations. Attention has recently diverted to this connection because of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on societies (Oxford Institute for Ethics Law and Armed Conflict, 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic is closely linked to human trafficking because it has shown how unchecked migration can cause the spread of a disease within a short time. The interconnected nature of the human population has equally created conditions that have made it improbable for countries to prevent their populations from such crises.

The COVID-19 pandemic is not an isolated health emergency because other pandemics with grave national security risks have preceded it. For example, the Ebola pandemic in west Africa demonstrated how the security of an entire region can be compromised by a health pandemic. Countries had to close their borders to control the spread of the disease, while others had to depend on the importation of health experts from different parts of the world to create an effective health response (Sarkar, 2020) The importance of global health coordination is important to control such emergencies but of importance to this study is the capacity of health crises to cause national security crises (Sarkar, 2020). Furthermore, the role of human trafficking in helping address or worsen the crisis is of interest to the present investigation.

In a research paper authored by Oxford Institute for Ethics Law and Armed Conflict (2022), it was determined that global health emergencies have the potential to destabilize states cause unrests, tensions, and suspicions among people. These sentiments, if allowed to grow, may cause disenfranchisement of populations and the destabilization of others (Sarkar, 2020). In this regard, some researchers have argued that human trafficking endangers public health (Sarkar, 2020). The above-mentioned factors demonstrate that government agencies should redefine their approach to national security based on the infectious nature of present health challenges. Particularly, the poor response of authorities to infectious diseases, as was demonstrated with the COVID-19 pandemic, have drawn attention to the need to view public health emergencies as national security concerns.

Health emergencies could occur at different scales. However, those that have the potential to create instability in countries are large-scale. Pandemics, flus, and viruses are potential causative factors for large-scale health crises (Dung & Avwunudiogba, 2021). Current research studies that have explored the impact of large-scale health crises and security have mentioned HIV and AIDS as a common area of investigation (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021). Relative to this area of probe, there is a link between such health crises and human trafficking. This is why some institutions claimed that the AIDS pandemic was closely linked to human migration patterns in the 1980s (Lakkimsetti, 2020). Proponents of this idea argue that human trafficking was partly linked to the spread of the disease (Sarkar, 2020). They have justified their claims based on findings that have affirmed the relationship between sex trafficking and disease spread.

The clandestine nature of human trafficking activities has made it difficult to get a full picture of the economic relationships between national security crises and trafficking of persons. As has been highlighted in this study, the human trafficking trade involves many players including recruiters, victims, and government agencies. Secondary players may involve companies or agents that facilitate the transportation or accommodation of trafficked victims. Others participating in the trade may be cleaners, cooks, and other service providers who get paid for offering various types of services to guests and patrons. This statement means that the extent of the relationship between the two issues affecting national security could be vast.

Recent research studies have started to mention mental health issues as another area of public health concern with the potential to cause instability among populations. Overall, the relationship between public health, national security, and human trafficking is fueled by organized crime activities that are associated with trafficked individuals. Similarly, violence among communities is a public health and security concern because it has the potential to increase homicide rates and murder.

Mental Health as a Security Issue

This line of research has its basis in investigative works that have linked mental health disorders to terrorism, the arms trade, and human trafficking (Miller et al., 2020). Most scholars that have pursued this line of research have argued that human trafficking erodes the fabric of our common humanity, thereby creating a mental health gap in our collective social psyche (Miller et al., 2020). Indeed, treating human beings as a commodity comes with significant mental health implications and victims have been observed to have a difficult time reconciling their experiences with daily life. The mental health problem does not only affect victims but also offenders as well. This is because most of those who perpetrate these crimes suffer from past untreated traumas and abuses, which they then continue in their later years. The problem has been linked with certain acts of imported terrorism activities where illegal persons come into other countries and participate in acts of terror.

The September 11^th Attacks in New York were perhaps the strongest indication of the potential that imported terror could have on a country. The sheer extent of the event created fear and despair among populations, further denting the social fabric that a country thrives on. Such incidences create suspicions among people, as was the case between religious factions in the US. The same outcomes have been observed in India where religious factions have been radicalized to cause terror to one another (Miller et al., 2020). These incidents have the potential to create widespread fear among people, thereby creating stress and mental exhaustion among community members.

From a mental perspective, some of these perpetrators could be suffering from untreated mental health issues. However, this diagnosis does not take away the public health crisis they potentially cause. Thousands of people around the world have died in the hands of terrorists whose backgrounds and activities could be linked to human trafficking. Therefore, in the same way as health crises could be imported terror could be facilitated to happen through human trafficking. Authorities have also had a difficult time establishing the relationship between different actors in this network. This is why it is important to understand the economics of the human trafficking trade.

Human Trafficking in The Digital Age

Unlike other forms of traffic, those that use digital means are the most difficult to detect or monitor. This is because offenders could be located in one part of the world and their victims in another. The two may not even know each other but there is a functional economic system in place where all parties can seek redress (Williamson, 2018). Technology offers this platform but critics have said it contains various weaknesses which impede its adoption. For example, only a few people are familiar with technology languages, thereby promoting them to control most system processes because of their knowledge background.

The extent to which technology can be used to assess the relationship between human trafficking and security is immeasurable. However, offenders have come up with new ways of using technology negatively to perpetrate their vices and continue their exploits. For example, some sex traffickers are known to stream their exploits online, thereby creating a platform for their victims to experience shame. These videos may be shared and re-shared online too many times to the extent that a victim may give up on justice. At the same time, taking action against such an individual could be counterproductive because there aren’t enough safeguards and laws yet to protect yourself.

Children are among the biggest targets in the transition towards digitization. Authorities have repotted largely disturbing trends in incidences where children are recruited online and trafficked to different parts of the world (Naidoo et al., 2019). Consistent with this trend, online child pornography has become common and children as young as 10 years are being transported around the world for sexual exploitation. There is also some evidence showing that child sexual abuse has penetrated the live streaming stage.

These examples show that technology has implications on human trafficking because it facilitates the recruitment of victims and their exploitation. This trend has been supported by other developments in the digital marketplace. For example, the development of personal connection through online dating sites has lured children and naive girls into the hands of predators (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). Relative to the peculiarities of this industry, observers are acknowledging that technology has changed the fundamental structure of the human trafficking trade and it is up to authorities to adapt as well.

The increased use of technology for law enforcement services has also been supported by other developments in the sector. For example, there has been a rise in the number of online materials that are relevant to human trafficking cases either in-house or external. These information sources act as resources for conducting investigations or for monitoring existing human trafficking activities and processes. Observers note that this investigative technique could eliminate cases of fraud where traffickers contact potential victims online, get to learn about their history, backgrounds and personal records (Council of Europe, 2022). Some cases involve traffickers getting nude pictures of their victims, which they later use to blackmail them to promise to share them publicly. This form of manipulation may be difficult to detect because victims could be talking to a stranger (Li et al., 2022). They later use this information to blackmail their targets. In the same breadth of analysis researchers have also demonstrate dhow traffickers use technology to monitor and survey their targets during the exploitative sessions. Thus technology has been used as tool of control.

There is also an increase in the number of live webcam shows and pay as you go social media platforms due to rapid technological use. These formats of engagement are trusted by traffickers because they have minimal accountability features. These Webcams and vides have been used by traffickers to conduct live web shows. A recent report prepared by a Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) working in the UK established that children are increasingly being exploited using Webcams to reach an international audience (Council of Europe, 2022).

In the exploitative stage, technology may be used to take graphic photos or videos of the victims and the data stored without their permission. The materials captured can then later be sold online using the same technological platform without their consent. During the exploitative stage, law enforcement officers may have a difficult time knowing who the real trafficker is because they could be operating in multiple locations around the world (Council of Europe, 2022). In some cases, traffickers may simply use technology to coordinate activities, while staying away from the location of the sexual act being performed. Usually, they operate from a location that is different from the one occupied by the exploited. This plan has implications on law enforcement officers. Therefore, it is difficult to apprehend such criminals with no knowledge of their location.

As stated above, the use of technology in to promote sexual exploitation is becoming common especially for children. However, this type of exploitation has equally been observed in the labor sector where thousands of people fall prey to fake online job recruiters who end up sending them to foreign lands to do work that they never intended to do (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). Most of these recruitment campaigns could pass off as any online job advertisement but a further scrutiny of the details reveal the guy is a con. These jobs are often shared and disseminated through social media and other fake news platforms, thereby allowing more fraudulent information to be circulated (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). A case of rising recruitment cases have been reported in Europe where a majority of recruitments have occurred through social networks and internet platforms. COVID-19 is believed to the cause of the change (PWC, 2022). The gig economy through its delivery platform has been criticized for promoting different forms of exploitation and facilitating the sale of illegal content.

Findings from non-governmental agencies show a similar state of the industry because most recruitment activities are reported to occur online. The highest internet traffic has been observed among men who want to have sex with minors. Preliminary research on this area of research shows that the dark web has not played a significant role in creating this transformation (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). Similarly, although preferred by many users of illegal materials, cryptocurrency is yet to be widely accepted as the main currency in transactions that involve human trafficking. However, their use in purchasing child pornography has been affirmed by many independent human right agencies (Council of Europe, 2022). These studies have shown that technology is being used at every stage of the human trafficking process.

Traffickers are also using technology to package child pornographic content and sell it online to mask their identity. These are significant changes that have the potential to change how people do business in the industry. It presents an urgent case of examining the merits and demerits of technological adoption in the entertainment industry. Additional research evidence indicates that human traffickers still use technological platforms, such as social media to intimidate their victims after exploitation (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). They do so to prevent them from telling other people what was done to them. The ability to access victims on social media platforms make them feel vulnerable to traffickers who use their privilege to continue to commit acts of crime (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). The adoption of technology in human trafficking has also spread to financial management. Reports indicate that criminals have found more secure means of divesting their money from the mainstream banking system to online means, including cryptocurrencies. These modes of payment make it difficult for authorities to trace proceeds of crime or even detect goods and services that have been bought by them.

As demonstrated above, law enforcers have endless opportunities that they can use to improve their work. Criminals are already doing this by adapting their business models to the virtual space (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). This plan means that few criminals would be having actual physical businesses because most of their clients can reach them online. Given that such plans are underway, officers are encouraged to adopt digital systems of control and surveillance (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). However, a group of researchers have highlighted the importance of examining the challenges that law enforces experience in trying to stop different forms of online exploitation. For example, the suggest that some officers spend hours trying to contact service providers to access information about suspects only to be ignored by the companies. Similarly, there are cases where law enforcers have had a difficult time policing the internet because new content is generated daily and the information they seek may be buried ion volumes of other irrelevant materials (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). This challenge may force them to work sub-optimally.

The use of encrypted information for hackers and fraudsters to communicate among themselves means that officers are also training criminals in using social media. They are being locked out of sensitive chat platforms where information about the offenders can be obtained. Worse, some law enforcement officers are unaware of the existence of such platforms and continue their work without thinking much of it. The lack of basic ICT skills among some officers have further undermined their capacity to investigate cases (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). Particularly, those that involve technical jargon and knowhow are elusive to authorities because they may not be aware of how to process such information. Some law enforcement departments and jurisdictions still do not have an ICT department yet despite the benefits that computes bring to any investigative process.

National Security in the Digital Age

Governments are often not as fast other corporate brands in embracing technology. Furthermore, if they do, some of the technologies they use are outdated or not properly running correctly. Consequently, most government agencies are ill-equipped to manage the modern challenges of human trafficking (Lin et al., 2021). The poor technological response of authorities to the challenges affecting human trafficking could be responsible for their poor response in crisis situations. Similarly, the low level of skilled labor in government agencies to manage complex information technology shows the level of unpreparedness they are to manage the modern challenges of information management in the digital age. Given the importance of national security to the security of a nation, it is surprising that some government department are taking the matter casually with serious ramifications in the future.

The use of the internet has also created another medium through which law enforcement officers can do their work from anywhere. They can simply log-into national datasets and print out a report that they need and their colleagues can do the same for their analyses. This example shows that technology use for human trafficking should not only be used to purchase modern equipment but also get value for money.

Despite the importance of being prepared to manage the information communication languages of the of the data management era, observes still criticize the use of information technology tool to run government operations. They argue that cyber security is a big problem for most of these organizations and add that most of them have lost large sums of money to criminals due to the vulnerability of their system (UN Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking of Persons, 2019). This problem has not only affected government agencies but also private enterprises with some of them being hacked and their funds stolen. Most of these incidents are unreported because companies want to pro0tect their images by not admitting that they have been hacked. Millions of dollars in lost funds have not been recovered from these of fraudulent activities. Managing data in the digital era requires a better approach of integrating digital information into legacy systems and have it protected using firewall and other means. Corporate and government institutions need much better firewall services to protect the integrity of their information.

Data management is another area that human trafficking and national security management that agents need to pay close attention to. In the 21^st century, data is regarded as the new gold. Therefore, it is prudent for companies to automate their processes and regularize their information management systems. Having better data management systems will not only help firms to better manage their inventories but also their list of offenders. Doing so will help them to solve cases< depending on how well their quality of evidence is. Given that technology captures evidence in different formats, it is similar important to use tech-based investigative methods to track or survey human trafficking activities.

Overall, these insights highlight the importance of including cyber security issues in national data management services. Indeed, the cyber security threats that governments receive everyday should be treated as threats to national security. This way, such issues can receive maximum attention and help investigating officers to get the culprits.

The main difference between the risks that law enforcement officers experience in terms of technological adoption and the victims’ intention of technology use. For law enforcement officers, technology use is mostly limited to data processing and management. Comparatively, victims and traffickers use technology as a tool to access and manage the market. They also use it to conceal their identities, receive payments for illegal content and do all kinds of activities they want so long as they remain anonymous.

Economics of the Human Trafficking Trade

The economics of the human trafficking trade play a significant role in facilitating its occurrence because they support the actions of each player involved. Therefore, it is important to understand the economics of the trade to know the motivations for different actors in the value chain and the role they play in enabling every agent to profit from the trade. To do so, it is critical to analyze the economic interests that support human trafficking in the first place. This plan makes it possible to identify industries, both illegal and legal, that are directly, or indirectly, involved in the trade.

Studies that have explored the economics of human trade are descriptive and fragmented. This way, it was difficult to draw linkages and associations between various economic interests that support the trade. However, a context-specific understanding of factors that have enabled human trafficking to thrive indicate that the main factors involved are profiting from forced labor, sex trade, and drugs. These three points of analysis are critical in understanding the economics of human trafficking. Later in this study, they will be mentioned again to demonstrate how the motivations of different players or actors in the trade can be dissuaded from engaging in it. However, before delving into the details of this analysis, it is important to understand economic conditions that enable human trafficking to occur.

Economic Conditions Enabling Human Trafficking

As highlighted in this paper, human trafficking is enabled by specific economic conditions that make populations vulnerable to the vice. Data relating to human trafficking incidents are affected by the economic dynamics of global trade. For example, most human trafficking incidents reported in America fail to account for products consumed in the US but made in another country that uses forced labor (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2022). In this regard, it is difficult to determine the extent of economic linkages that support human trafficking and all its forms. However, there are specific conditions which make it possible for traffickers to survive economically. They have mastered possible targets of crime by exploiting poor economic conditions that make people vulnerable to crime.

Trafficking like other types of crime affects human populations discriminately. Particularly, low-income members of society are more exposed and vulnerable to agents of human trafficking compared to those from wealthy backgrounds. The difference is attributed to desperation and the desire to improve the lives of family members. In this regard, studies affirming the discriminant effects of human trafficking on society have established a link between poverty and human trafficking (International Labor Office, 2022). These studies demonstrate that the lack of economic opportunities in certain countries have created a pool of vulnerable people who are desperate to travel to unknown locations in search of jobs or opportunities to improve their lives.

The connection between poor economic conditions and human trafficking has recently attracted the attention of researchers who have struggled to understand the backgrounds of human trafficking victims as a preventive strategy to curb future cases. The main goal of their investigations has been to better understand the background of human trafficking victims to better identify vulnerable individuals and equip them with knowledge that would make them less vulnerable to traffickers. This plan has been adopted by several non-profit organizations with mixed results (Miller et al., 2020). The main challenge has been overcoming the socioeconomic pressure of poverty and maintaining the hope of a better life in the face of adversity.

The above-mentioned investigations reveal that trafficking in the labor market is more pronounced in industries that attract people with low or unskilled labor. Similarly, industries that have poor working conditions are conducive for traffickers because they can accommodate people who are desperate and seek an opportunity to make quick money (Wang, 2020). Traffickers thrive in such conditions because of low accountability levels and minimal background checks associated with employees who work in these sectors.

From a national security perspective, current scholarly attention on human trafficking has mostly been drawn to case studies investigating the impact of economic gaps between developing and developed nations on safety. The central argument in these investigations has been that people from less developed countries easily fall prey to traffickers who promise to better their lives in western countries due to adverse economic conditions (EURACTIV &Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2018).

Most victims of human trafficking are lured by online scammers who give them risky job offers, high-interest loans, and opportunities to earn low-paying jobs. Desperation forces some people to accept these offers because they want to survive in an environment of economic hardship and human trafficking thrives under these conditions (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022). Based on this assessment, it is prudent to address this problem by investigating it as a national security issue.

Recent human health challenges brought by the COVID-19 pandemic have had a negative effect on the resilience of vulnerable people to avoid being victims of human trafficking. Notably, the high numbers of human trafficking cases reported from the year 2020 have been partly driven by the health pandemic (Schroeder et al., 2022). It has had this impact by increasing the number of vulnerable families to financial exploitation. International organizations have drawn attention to this fact because they argue that livelihoods have been lost in the pandemic (Wang, 2020). For example, the World Bank observes that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased the number of people living in extreme poverty by 70 million (Bigio & Welch, 2022). This figure represents an increase in the number of families around the world who are vulnerable to exploitation.

Profiting from Forced Labor

As highlighted in this study, there are different forms of human trafficking and forced labor is a product of one of them. It often suffices when victims are convinced to travel from one part of the world to another to work in one type of job and end up employed in another. It similarly includes the use of children or minors to work as laborers, contrary to international labor laws (International Labor Office, 2022). The trade in human labor is facilitated by people who profit from engaging in commercial activities linking buyers and sellers of slave labor. However, according to international law, all profits generated from forced labor is illegal.

Researchers estimate that people engaged in activities involving forced labor make about $44 billion annually (International Labor Office, 2022). Out of this number about $32 billion in revenue has been directly linked to human trafficking activities. It is equally estimated that the total amount of profits generated in the private economy is in excess of $150 billion (International Labor Office, 2022). As has been highlighted in this chapter, most of these profits are generated in Asia. Furthermore, a majority of it is derived from different forms of forced labor within the sex industry. Figure 2.2 shows a breakdown of the locations where the largest profits from forced labor are made.

A breakdown of the profits made per victim of forced labor show similar trends in geographic with the highest returns reported in western countries compared to others. For example, western countries have per capita return of $34,800, while the value in the Middle east is half the amount (International Labor Office, 2022). The Asia-Pacific region and Africa have the lowest per capita rates at $5,000 and $3,900, respectively (International Labor Office, 2022). About two-thirds of the profits generated from forced labor come from human trafficking activities involving sexual exploitation. It is estimated that about 30% of the income earned from this trade is directly associated with salary and maintenance costs, while the rest is reserved for the traffickers. These figures suggest the existence of a financial motive for traffickers and victims to continue the human trafficking trade. From the demand-side perspective, households that purchase forced labor benefit financially from human trafficking as well. It is estimated that these families make up to $8 billion dollars in savings that are accrued from underpaying workers (International Labor Office, 2022). Relative to these statistics, it is estimated that most victims of forced labor practices only make about 40% of what they should earn.

Recent attempts at understanding the scale of the economics of slave labor have analyzed the impact of immigrant labor on countries and their national security interests. Some of these investigations have shown that extensive inflow of migrant labor could distort the economic balance of nations and potentially lead to social unrest (Belaid et al., 2020). Proponents of this view have conducted independent research studies to investigate the impact of immigrant labor from less-developed countries to their advanced counterparts (Arcimaviciene & Baglama, 2018). For example, there has been adequate research done to investigate the impact of immigrant labor in Germany and from war-torn Arab countries, such as Syria, into western Europe (Haider, et al., 2021). The overriding consensus these scholars have had in this research is that migrant labor increases the risk of social unrest, hence affecting national security.

Profiting from Sex Trade

The sex trafficking industry is estimated to be worth more than 90 billion. These figure put into context implies that the industry is larger than the cocaine trade. Comparisons have also been made to the size of the market and the personal computer industry. International organizations and scholars who have investigated the trade suggest that it is a “money game” with most of the victims taking part in it accidentally (PRESSAT, 2022). Social welfare organizations that have interviewed sex trafficking victims further lend credence to this view because they say that harsh economic conditions led them to fall victim to the crime. Stated differently, their motivation to take part in the trade was financial.

Data that has been collected from sex trafficked women indicate that although they are financially motivated to take part in the trade, their wages are not commensurate with the work they do. In fact, most of them consider themselves to be underpaid with a majority of them unable to escape poverty or drug abuse, which support this trade in the first place (Wang, 2020). Researchers who have delved deeper into the economics of the sex trade say that, sometimes, traffickers approach family members and “buy” their daughters for as low as $800 (PRESSAT, 2022). Those who have been offered such financial incentives often take it because such amounts could be equivalent to their entire year’s salary. Again, this statement draws the link between human trafficking and poverty.

The conditions which victims of sex trafficking live could lead one to believe that they would voluntarily leave the trade. However, research reports indicate that some victims of human trafficking chose not to exit the trade because of the financial gain they get. On average, it is estimated that a woman would get $100,000 in annual income from the trade (PRESSAT, 2022). People who are higher in rank are estimated to make between 100% and 1000% in profit from this amount. In one report developed in the Netherlands, it was documented that one sex trafficker could make up to $295,000 in profits for exploiting four women for 14 months (PRESSAT, 2022). These findings demonstrate that there is a significant financial incentive for people, especially from desperate backgrounds, to choose to engage in the trade. They also show that sexual exploitation is a lucrative trade.

Per capita profits from sex trade varies with the geographical region and market potential of those who demand such services. Compared to other forms of human trafficking, the sex industry has the highest financial returns. This outcome is largely true because of low capital costs associated with the trade and high amounts of money people are willing to pay for services offered.

Today, the economic interests associated with human trafficking have become deeply entrenched in society and human order. For example, sex trafficking has become increasingly difficult to detect because victims could pass off as ordinary passengers. At the same time, the airline and hotel industries have significantly benefitted from this trade, thereby creating a spinoff industry that thrives on illicit trade of people. Taxi services and restaurants also thrive in this industry because they offer supportive services to all players involved. Therefore, it is difficult to disentangle the economic interests of the trade from the players involved.

Profiting from Debt

Victims of debt bondage suffer in silence because this type of burden is psychological. It influences those who are affected to do whatever it takes to repay their creditors, including failing victims to traffickers. However, debt traps are not unique to human trafficking situations only because the workplace setting also has such cases. For example, some employers choose to keep their employees trapped in debt because they intend to retain their services (Labor Abuse Authority, 2021). It is a malicious strategy of retaining their workers and minimizing any thoughts or ideas of leaving them for “greener pastures.” The employees then end up in an endless cycle of debt that they may be unable to pay, thereby transferring it to their family members (Labor Abuse Authority, 2021). Threats, violence intimidation, and fear of imprisonment are reasons that keep debt victims from reporting such cases.

Debt traps as a form of human trafficking have not been extensively mentioned in scholarly literature. This is because the extent of debts and their impact on people’s lives have not been fully understood. However, anecdotal evidence has drawn a relationship between debt traps and human forced labor as a form of human trafficking (Labor Abuse Authority, 2021). Situations have been reported of people who have borrowed money from their employers to pay recruiters who promise them better job opportunities abroad. When they reach the desired destination, they find that they job they were promised is not the exact one they will do. Therefore, they end up in forced labor to pay off the debt.

Summary

This review has highlighted the state of current scholarly research on the study topic. Issues that constitute human trafficking activities are well documented, including the negative ones. Similarly, positive experiences are also appreciated. The pieces of evidence analyzed in this document were deemed to be effective in presenting a holistic picture of the real situation affecting human trafficking activities. However, this area of the probe is new because few researchers have understood their place in the research process.

Results

This research paper seeks to investigate the nexus between human trafficking and national security form an economics perspective. The economics angle of the analysis is unique to the present investigation because previous research studies have failed to provide a focused strategy of addressing human trafficking issues. The covert nature of the practice has also been highlighted in this study as a political tool for concealing its occurrence human trafficking. Consequently, it is estimated that the number of victims who have been affected by this form of crime could be higher than previously reported. The objectives of this study seek to explore the nature of economic interests supporting the human trafficking trade. The second goal is to investigate the link between healthcare costs, human trafficking, and national security. The third objective identifies sociopolitical opportunities that facilitates the trade of humans. The last one seeks to promote economic solutions as a strategy for minimizing human trafficking incidences. These objectives were covered by the three themes that emerged from this study.

The theme of national security aligns with the nature of economic interests abating human trafficking in the US, while health costs are related to human trafficking. National security issues were addressed by the geopolitical issues affecting human trafficking. Notably, the effectiveness of interventions proposed and implemented by countries to mitigate the effects of human trafficking are moderated by this value. The combined theme of national security and human trafficking is relevant to the objective investigating the link between healthcare costs of human trafficking and national security. Overall, Figure 3.1 below highlights the relationship between the key variables of this study and the themes that emerged in the discussion

Table 3.1 above shows that the themes underlying this study are supported by the objectives of the investigation. Stated differently, there is a synchrony of purpose between the thematic analysis findings and the main variables impacting this inquiry. Possible solutions that are addressed in the table above represent generalized interventions that could be adopted to minimize human traffic. A detailed analysis of these recommendations are discussed in the recommendation section of this paper.

Economics of Human Trafficking

As highlighted in the first chapter of this study, the aim of the present investigation is to explain the nexus between human trafficking and national security. Economics emerged as a core theme in this study because few researchers have linked human trafficking with national security issues. Particularly, no researchers explained the relationship between the two concepts economically. Therefore, there is a gap in the literature that fails to outline the place of economics in solving human trafficking challenges.

The main challenge associated with studies that have adopted an economic outlook of human trafficking is their lack of contextual understanding of issues affecting the trade. In other words, the strategies adopted in one part of the world or market may fail to work in another Miller et al., 2020). However, some employers and business owners are oblivious to this fact because human trafficking is a contextual problem with its effects varying across regions (Wang, 2020). The lack of a contextual approach to addressing human trafficking challenges makes it difficult to apply specific recommendations proposed in some scholarly works. The main challenge is that most of the data appears to be generalized because there is no context specific appreciation of the unique circumstances affecting the victims and traffickers.

Given that the current study focuses on the US, statistics that are relevant to America were sufficient and easy to get. However, researchers have not openly established the link between human trafficking and national security. Therefore, despite the availability of data discussing human trafficking and national security, the two were discussed as alien concepts to one another. This lack of clear relationship between the two concepts stems from their ambiguity. National security is a broad and sweeping term, which may imply different forms of surveillance or monitoring activities, thereby curtailing people freedoms.

Security

National security interests formed the second theme of the current investigation. It was developed from the abundance of research studies that explored factors impacting national security with minimal or no mention of human trafficking. Therefore, national security is analyzed in isolation.

Source Markets

An investigation into the nature or the relationship between human trafficking activities in the US show that most victims tend to come from certain countries in Asia. For example, Thailand, Nepal, India, Mexico and the Philippines are the biggest source markets for human trafficking victims (Paillard-Borg & Hallberg, 2018). Some of these people are not necessarily immigrants because they hold US citizenship. Extensive research done by the Department of Justice shows that students are among the biggest source markets for traffickers. The reasons given for their vulnerabilities are economic but the continue to pose a risk to authorities, especially through loopholes that existing in US student visa programs.

This relationship is important because human trafficking today can cause serious security threats. However, there was insufficient scholarly research on this topic area with the main themes emerging from the investigation being national security and human trafficking. A third themes was developed form the two and it contained elements of both human trafficking and national security issues. These emerging areas of study formed the basis for developing the main themes underlying the findings of this investigation.

Technology and Its Potential to Break Trust

The role of technology in aiding human trafficking activities has been highlighted in this study as one of the new trends impacting the industry. This area of research is relatively underexplored, especially in the context of crime prevention plans. However, there is promise that it could be a transformative change driver in the future (Eze et al., 2021). The ubiquitous nature of social media has captured the attention of the researcher because of its ability to break the trust that victims of human traffickers have with their agents.

The growth of the internet has increased the growth and spread of the sex trafficking trade. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the percentage of sex trafficking cases increased by 22% (Østerby, 2022). The surge was attributed to increased cases of online recruitment. Facebook and Instagram have been identified as common recruitment sites for human traffickers looking to apprentice people to take part in the sex industry. During the pandemic era, a 120% increase in recruitment activities were reported on Facebook (PRESSAT, 2022). During the same time, a 95% increase in enrolments were reported on Instagram (PRESSAT, 2022).

The proper deployment of technology-based human resource management systems can help to minimize different forms of forced labor. This system would capture all details relating to the employees, including their ages, origins, terms of conditions for work and such like attributes in a national database that can be integrated with government systems for better scrutiny. Such proposals have been made before but concerns about consumer privacy and national security fears have slowed down efforts by authorities to deploy technology to prevent different forms of crime.

Technology can best be deployed in situations where trust between the trafficker and the victims is key in facilitating the crime. For example, in most human trafficking cases involving forced labors, victims end up dependent on their recruiters who could take their passports away and leave them stranded in foreign lands. The effective use of technology can be used to better manage such cases and break the trust that traffickers offer victims who are unware of how international systems work. Other forms of human trafficking such as the enslavement of women for prostitution could also be improved in the same way. Improved data management is likely to be achieved in such an environment, thereby creating safe environments for people to travel safely and for legitimate reasons.

Role of Partners

Partnerships provide a collaborative environment where stakeholders involved in the human trafficking trade can talk. Collaboration is often the next goal and it aims to convince partners to merge their resources and fight a common cause. These plans have the potential to revolutionize industries and even create others (Wang, 2020). Therefore, it is important for organizations to harness such a force and use it for the benefit of their stakeholders. This type of force is present in human trafficking because it cannot be fought alone. Particularly, the security aspects of the trade require collaboration between law enforcement officers and community members. The social cost of collaboration also requires mention because human trafficking activities are destructive to the society in the long-run.

The complexity of human trafficking and its linkage with national security issues means that several stakeholders are involved in the trade. The need to include their interests in developing interventions for curbing human trafficking has been highlighted in previous sections of this paper. It is repeated in this context of discussion because of its centrality to forge partnerships among concerned about how well to improve the safety of all.

In this discussion, collaboration is regarded as a necessity for the development of holistic strategies for minimizing the security risks of human trafficking.

Nurturing relationships with these stakeholders could support efforts to curb human trafficking activities. They can provide assistance at different levels of engagement with the hope that they could influence the demand or supply-side aspects of the trade. Similarly, these stakeholders can act as facilitators for collecting intelligence on human trafficking activities and the state of their victims. Such information can be useful to law enforcers who could use it to fill in information gaps on the trade.

The role of forging partnerships to stop the human trafficking trade is related to the success of various institutions, including law enforcement, provision of health/ambulatory services, and availability of financial services, just to mention a few.

Individuals, agencies and companies that provide financial services are critical to the success of the above mentioned plan. They can help authorities to monitor financial flow from illicit activities, thereby making it possible to nab traffickers.

Interventions

The cross-border nature of human trafficking and the involved of multiple layers in the trade have forced authorities and human rights organizations to intervene to curb the crime. However, like other forms of international crime, authorities have not registered significant progress. Part of the problem can be traced to the operations of law enforcement officers, while the traffickers bear others. For example, some law enforcers are not motivated well to pursue human trafficking cases, while others are not equipped or specially trained to investigate such crimes. These deficiencies could cause laxity in the work of authorities, thereby leading to and wasted man hours. Research studies that proposed the use of intervention approaches to curb human trafficking have been affected by the same market dynamics. The third theme that emerged from the current investigation combined human trafficking and national security concepts to have a holistic outlook of life. A small sample of researchers made this comparison with mixed results. Table XZYZ shows research studies that appealed to this theme.

Dismantling the Economic Networks of Human Traffickers

The findings of this study have shown that underlying economic networks motivate different actors to play the role of facilitating the trade. The financial benefits of taking part in human exploitation far outweigh most types of legitimate businesses. Therefore, economic exploitation continues to be at the center of the human trafficking trade. Authorities have often chosen to focus their law enforcement resources on nabbing individuals, but more attention should be redirected towards stifling the economic interests of the cartels that take part in this trade to stop their expansion.

The process of dismantling the economic cartels that facilitate drug trade needs a careful overview of the behaviors of criminals to determine when and where to strike. In the US, the economic networks of immigration are concentrated around major traveling hubs (Wang, 2020). They also commonly occur in cities with a significant immigrant population. These trends show that California, Texas and Georgia are possible targets for additional scrutiny. Some states, such as Arizona have reported similar high numbers of human trafficking activities but experts are attributing these findings to its closeness to the US-Mexico border. The distribution of human trafficking cases in the US is consistent with government reports on regions that have the highest human trafficking survivors. California and Texas are among states that topped the list (Wang, 2020).

The main challenge that is associated with dismantling the economic networks of human traffickers in these states is the lack of uniformity in legislation. This issue complicates the implementation of economic strategies by state and federal authorities. Furthermore, it makes law enforcement a difficult process, while that should not be the case.

Role of Authorities

The role of authorities in maintaining national security is central to the functioning of the state. This role is partly mentioned in this study as the intervention force because it can moderate the demand and supply-side functions of human trafficking. However, similar to factors that affect the human trafficking activities, there could also be issues that impact national security. These elements of analysis are relevant to the present understanding of the relationship between human trafficking and national security. This discussion is important to the current probe because national security has various dimensions, some of which are critical to the functioning of the state as the guarantor of freedom and order. These factors are described below.

Action by other States

No state operates in isolation unless they do not want to operate within the global international order of states. However, there are states within regions that undermine the work of others. While this may not be entirely justifiable the action by other states has the potential to create a national security crisis. It is made worse by the fact that some po0wrful states can start a war with a country and sustain it to create a global war. The actions by other states are more focused on imposing their order or will on others as opposed to managing their homes. From a regulatory perspective, these states have immense power to comply or grant the wishes of other governments or of its own citizens.

The extent of the impact of one state’s action on human trafficking could be vast to the extent that it could cripple the investigative works of others. Therefore, when dealing with other nations, it is important to maintain neutrality in managing social and political affairs. These insights suggest that the actions of other states may moderate human trafficking activities and its relationship with national security. This realization draws into question the nature of global alliances and affiliations around the world. Western nations tend to control most of the power in this regard because of their firm grip on global institutions of governance. The reasons for bringing up these alliance is to remind people that the action by others states could play a significant role in helping one to ascend to higher positions of governance.

Countries around the world operate within these global political systems of cronyism. These alliances may prompt them to implement specific international laws in their work to be protected from unscrupulous individuals. in other circumstances they may choose to overlook them. Therefore, the actions of different states could play a significant role in influencing human traffic outcomes and nationals security issues. Relative to this statement, the role played by other states in influencing the national security performance draws attention to the role of interventionist practices in human trafficking. Stated differently, the ability of governments and their agencies to address human trafficking issues and national security concerns depends on their collaborative efforts because one person cannot do the job effectively. This truth highlights the importance of pursuing collaborative plans in situational development outcomes. Thus, from the evidences gathered in this section of the study, state actors have a significant moderating role to play in influencing the human trafficking activities of another.

Violent Non-State Actors

The main difference between a violent non-state actor and a violent one is the means through which they use to solve conflict. Non-violent state actors often prefer to use diplomacy and negotiation to work with other people, while violent non-state actors are often pursuing a mission that is only known to them (Williams, 2021). Some common examples of violent non-state actors include terrorists and transnational organized crime networks. The latter group is evidence of the potential outcome of allowing human trafficking to continue for a long time.

The role of violent non-state actors in destabilizing the security of states can be examined from the general systems theory. It presupposes that there is a natural balance of power that often exists within any given formation of people (Williams, 2021). The trick to findings stability in such a group is to ensure everyone has such a balance. The general systems theory is conducive for analyzing power balances where there are multiple equilibriums of powers structures at play. This a complicated system but the goal is to ensure these multiple power structures are always balanced. A lack of balance could be disastrous because some of them will start fighting, which is not a good indicator of food. Overall, non-violent state actors have demonstrated that peace and security is negotiated and at times paid for

Organized Criminal Groups

Organized criminal gangs are often directly involved in the human trafficking trade and plan to continue doing that so long nobody stops them. The size of such gangs dictate their threat assessment levels with large grouping treated with more caution that smaller ones (Lee, 2020). In countries where organized criminal groups are powerful, it may not be wise to stare and that other people did. These kind of gangs have a significant impact on the national security of a country, espociakly if there are no measured controls to stop their activities. Some countries have witnessed a violent past controlled by criminal groups and its people have no intention of going back there.

Some parts of Latin American have such a history. For example, Columbia and Mexico.’ Nationals security interests are often compromised by the activities of organized criminal gangs. These teams of people often demand for some money and favors. They may operate like a paramilitary group with pseudo power donated by the state. This is likely to happen because most of the time, government authorities are aware of their activities because no such gang can grow to be that big without the knowledge of authority.

Researchers argue that organized criminal gangs are growing in strength around the world due to globalization. This fact means that most of them can evade authority and accountability of their actions. This is why some organized gang groups are feared even by governments because they can solve social stability through lack of fear.

The threat to national security posed by criminal and organized gangs has only recently come to the attention of international bodies. For example, it is only recently in 2020 that the UN recognized the global dominance of organized gangs and treated them as such. Globalization has increased the strength and influence of these cartels by making it possible for them to expand their audiences and increase their outreach. These insights show that organized crime poses a threat to countries. The ability of these criminal networks to corrupt state systems of justice and law enforcement is testament to their power. However, their success erodes the soul of a country because it rewards bad behavior. Therefore, there is a risk that a child would emulate their behaviors with the expectation that they would live differently.

Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are acts of God that have the ability to cause displacements in human population and death. Some common types of natural disasters, include earthquakes, floods, thunder strikes, and even fire. These events have the ability to not only affect livelihoods but cause entire swaths of land to be unlivable. Such kinds of disaster have the potential to influence a nation’s security because they can cause large displacements of human population, thereby creating tension. Similarly, they can cause significant financial losses to families if they lose their homes, businesses, schools, churches, or other physical representations of their best days.

Based on the scope of natural crises, it can be assumed that natural disasters are likely to affect the security of a state. In this assessment plan, the concept of security should be used to mean the restoration of human values, warmth, and friendliness. However, researchers hold different definitions of the same concept with slight differences in pronunciation. They opine that natural disasters are unpreventable and it is only through one’s protection that they can survive. The most recent example of a national disaster that caught the world’s attention was Hurricane Katrina, which led to thousands of lives lost and homes destroyed. The ensuring public migrate out of the affected regions brought a new breed of children who are oblivious about history. Therefore, it can be deduced that natural disasters moderate national security issues. Collectively, these evidences point to the need to examine the concept of national security intricately.

Technology Use

Traditionally, most people have obtained their goods and services from brick-and-mortar stores. However, in the last decade, the global business environment has experienced significant changes that have been caused by political, social, and economic changes in society (Kampf, 2018). Some key drivers for this change are the spread of internet services, increased geopolitical instability across nations, and, more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. Particularly, the COVID-19 pandemic has been the biggest driver of change in the sector. It exposed gaps in the delivery of key services and magnified existing inequalities that have traditionally affected how different groups of citizens relate with one another (Kampf, 2018). These problems have been detrimental to the welfare of underserved populations of the society. Thus, entrepreneurs could develop solutions to mitigate the above-mentioned problems.

Relative to the above-mentioned developments, today, the demand for digital products is high and online delivery of goods and services is ranked at a similar level of importance as other unexploited areas of business (Kampf, 2018). Broadly, there is an opportunity to address gaps in the delivery of goods and services in low-income neighborhoods to alleviate some of the above-mentioned concerns (Kampf, 2018). The gap in the market is significant because of glaring inequalities in access to goods and services across different demographic groups in the community.

The above-mentioned drivers of market change have demonstrated the need for innovation to remain relevant in business. Collectively, these market drivers have pushed businesses to automate their processes to adapt to some of the pressures that arise from exposure to the above-mentioned variables (Kampf, 2018). Others have changed their business structures to make them more responsive to environmental factors (Kampf, 2018). Broadly, people are looking for ways to optimize market opportunities, while at the same time, avoiding uncertainties of the global environment.

Organizations that have successfully transitioned from the brick-and-mortar business model have benefitted from increased resiliency in the wake of widespread market uncertainties. Most of them have reported increased efficiency of automating their processes because machines are more reliable to complete operational tasks compared to human beings (Kampf, 2018). Some organizational heads have also argued that employing automated processes has helped them to reduce their overall costs because the mechanization of business tasks has eliminated the need to rely on people to complete tasks. Furthermore, unlike human beings, machines can work for a long time without getting tired or needing replacement.

The aforementioned facts have prompted many business owners to consider embracing automation as a core business feature. Multinational organizations have led the trend towards the mechanization of business processes by augmenting some of their core activities with digital platforms techniques (Kampf, 2018). Some entrepreneurs have seen the opportunity created by automation and chosen to start new enterprises within the e-commerce space to exploit the advantages that come from operating in a virtual world.

Despite the promise of an improved business environment due to automation, socioeconomic inequalities have prevented communities from developing or achieving sustainable rates of growth and social stability. These inequalities exist due to various reasons, some of which are policy-related and others products of the lack of innovation or creativity (Kampf, 2018). The recent COVID-19 pandemic proved that systemic inequality exists among societies and affect people’s quality of life in various ways. Gaining access to quality healthcare services is only one among a myriad of factors that are impacted by such inequalities. Thus, different cadres of people are affected in varied ways.

Part of the interventions that can be adopted to manage the relationship between human trafficking and national security is to use technology. This study has already shown the technology can be misused by traffickers to recruit new people for force labor or other forms of trafficking. However, for purposes of this analysis, the use of technology is presented as a solution for managing trafficking and security challenges brought by human immigration. Therefore, while acknowledging that technology can also be negatively, the focus will be on the positive aspects of its integration, subject to the objectives of the study.

Already, law enforcement officials deploy different types of technology to carry7 out their functions. However, for purposes of detecting trafficked victims or even preventing such them from abduction in the first place, they need to be a step ahead in using technology. This tool can be used to map out sections of the population that are most vulnerable and institute interventions there to reduce the number of people desperate to be helped. GPS mapping techniques can be used for this purpose because they have extensive range and can accommodate a lot of useful data about an individual or place.

Different types of technology could be applicable in the current case, including developing unique proprietary software to detect suspicious cases as well as deploying the use of an existing software to undertake data management services. Data management is deliberately mentioned in the above statement because it is the simplest way through that law enforcement officials can track or monitor activities on this platform. The above-mentioned proposals only outline a sample of views that technology can be used to improve governance. Advanced data analysis techniques such as AI could have a more effective outcome for an organization because it uses advanced algorithms that can accurately predict people’s desires.

American Ideals and Human Trafficking

Cases of human trafficking are more common in the US than any other country around the world. This is because of the demand for human services in the US supersedes all other countries. Its background is rich in a robust legal environment and criminal justice sector that can protect when need be. Therefore, American Ideals are included in the reviews as part of the investigative process. The inclusion of America Ideals in this review stems from the important leadership role played by the US in addressing various sociopolitical issues. As highlighted in section 1.0 of this paper, the focus of the present research topic was the US. This area of the research was selected for review in the study because the US reports among the highest cases of human trafficking activities. From a moral standpoint the US plays a much bigger role in stopping the global human trafficking trade because of its leadership position at various economic and governance levels. The US has developed a reputation for being a champion for democracy and human rights around the world. It should take a leadership position in increasing awareness about human trafficking as a form of organized crime.

Taking this proactive stance will not only be a case of inspiration but also one of securing the national interests of the state. This statement is factual because the nation is strongest when its business activities align with its core values. Human trafficking activities are inconsistent with the American vision and dream of a bright future for all. Relative to the above-mentioned proposal, some human rights groups have raised their concerns about rampant cases of trafficking by saying that it is not enough to simply talk or expose injustice (Wang, 2020). In this regard, America needs to take a leadership position in addressing most of the challenges relating to human trafficking highlighted here.

Summary

This chapter has indicated the state of the current body of scholarly literature on the research topic. The evidence gathered here shows that researchers have focused on explaining issues that affect human trafficking and national security in isolation. These issues have been captured in the current inquiry as independent concepts of review. However, the current study aims to merge them to have a broader understanding of the relationship between human trafficking and national security issues

Discussions, conclusions, ethical reflections, and recommendations

The aim of this study has been to investigate the nexus between human trafficking activities and national security. Three hypotheses were developed after focusing on the above-mentioned research areas were tested in this investigation. Stated differently, this study sought to test three hypotheses that were meant to assess different aspects of the relationship between human trafficking and national security. These three issues were focused on understanding the effects of global sociopolitical forces in human trafficking, the public health as a national security issue, and establishing the economic interests supporting the trade. This chapter discusses the findings highlighted in chapters 2 and 3 above. It summarizes key findings, provides recommendations and contains an ethical reflection of the processes undertaken to complete the investigation. These processes are pertinent to the inquiry and they are presented in this chapter as discussions, conclusion, ethical reflection, and recommendation section.

Discussion

This research paper sought to investigate the nexus between human trafficking and national security form an economics perspective. This economic angle of analysis was unique to the present investigation because previous research studies have failed to provide a focused strategy of addressing human trafficking issues. The covert nature of the practice has also been highlighted in this study as a political tool for concealing its occurrence (Li et al., 2020). Consequently, it is estimated that the number of victims who have been affected by this form of crime could be higher than previously reported. Nonetheless, with these issues yet to be addressed, the present investigation highlights the nexus in the relationship between human trafficking and national security using three primary areas of assessment – sociopolitical environment of a country, public health as a security issue, and the economic interests underlying the system.

Based on the secondary findings gathered in this study, it is important to identify strategic priorities in the new business planning that will minimize the adoption of illicit labor. This exercise is important in establishing areas to direct a business’s resources to meet its objectives. In lieu of this goal, two strategic priorities emerged from this investigation – convenience and cost. Convenience is included in this review as a strategic priority because it complements the value proposition of a business, which is to produce goods and services at a low cost. Therefore, convenience is a strategic priority for any business because it differentiates the service idea from those of competitors who operate rival stores.

Comparatively, cost is another strategic priority for businesses that intend to use cheap labor because they are likely to serve low-income consumers. This group of buyers is often price-conscious and sensitive to slight changes in the cost of buying products and services. Additionally, it is important to recognize the challenges that most low-income dwellers experience regarding their ability to meet different basic needs. Therefore, while basic services are important for the sustenance of life, it is likely that some customers would opt to redirect their resources towards meeting other needs. Consequently, price could be a catalyst for change in the labor market and not a deterrent of the same.

Business designs should also be redefined to take into consideration several factors that would affect demand and supply sides of its activities. For purposes of this analysis, the focus will be on the demand side of the business plan, which is moderated by the demand for forced labor. In this review, plans for integrating the contribution of users to the overall business design will be discussed with the main priority areas being patients’ safety and the convenience of service delivery that they will enjoy by using a new service. In terms of safety, attention is paid to the legal regime governing the sale of labor. Notably, of importance to this analysis is the requirement in law that child and forced labor is illicit. This legal provision will influence the design of the service plan because potential workers should be required to upload scanned copies of their identification documents on an online portal before recruitment. Again, the aim of doing so is to comply with the existing legal structures governing labor relations. By extension, the safety of employees will be safeguarded through this design feature. Its inclusion in future service designs means that new businesses will be compliant to existing laws and policies governing labor relations.

The second feature to be integrated in consumer service design will seek to optimize the potential for offering convenient labor to those who demand it. However, before doing so, a waiting period should be introduced to conduct a background scan on potential candidates Therefore, potential employees will be assured that if they work with legitimate agents, they should expect fair treatment for their employers and not exploitation. The waiting period should be included in the service design because it represents the average time that customers wait to have products delivered to their homes.

Theoretical Application

As highlighted in section 1.0 of this research paper, the routine activity theory was the main theoretical framework for the present study. Key tenets of this theory demonstrate the importance of understanding factors that cause crime to occur. In this paper, human trafficking is the crime and the approach taken in this study to address the problem has been to understand all environmental issues that lead to its occurrence in the first place. These perceptive issues have been keenly selected in this probe to highlight factors that support the relationship between human trafficking and national security. The relationship is of interest to the researcher because few scholars have linked the two concepts. This is why the economic systems underpinning the human trafficking trade have been mentioned and explored in this study. These environmental factors are depicted in figure 4.1 below to represent economic interests, public health concerns, and sociopolitical factors impacting human trafficking and national security

The three elements of analysis depicted above represent the functional points of engagement between human trafficking activities and national security interests. The human trafficking model therefore appears in the context of this study to represent key tenets of the routine activities theory because it also acknowledges the existence of three factors namely, an accessible target, a motivated offender, and the absence of an intervening force. these three tenets of the routine activities theory could be matched with the main tenets of figure 4.1 above, which are equally three.

The focus on public health to national security matters to the victims of human trafficking because they are predisposed to unfavorable environmental conditions that could lead to disease incubation and later spread. Therefore, the public health concerns of human trafficking victims address the supply side dynamics of the trade. Comparatively, the economic interests and web of relationships that support human trafficking activities in this study define the demand side of the trade, while the sociopolitical factors influencing the same relationship represents the neutral force that should moderate the relationship between the first two. Based on this comparison the findings of the present investigation are consistent with the framework of the routine activity theory.

The routine activity theory suggests that the three information centers highlighted above should be regular points of contact between human trafficking systems and the national security plans that are linked therein. This model of analysis is relevant to the current investigation because it explains the nexus through which human trafficking affects national security outcomes. These connection hubs indicate potential areas of analysis that need tweaking when redefining the relationship between human trafficking and national security. The three points of information flow were used in the present study to define the main theoretical areas of review. The findings were applicable in testing the three hypotheses underpinning the present inquiry. The findings are highlighted below.

Hypothesis 1

Part of the focus of the current probe has been the establishment of demand-side factors influencing human trafficking. These factors have been highlighted in the present study to mean the economic interests of different players in the market who profit from different forms of trafficking. Relative to this assertion, the first hypotheses tested in this investigation claimed that economic interests have a moderating effect on the relationship between human trafficking and national security. The evidence gathered in the present probe affirmed this hypothesis because of research investigations which have highlighted the economic benefits of human trafficking (Olanrewaju et al., 2019). This is because of the presence of an overwhelming body of evidence, which has indicated that several economic relationships fuel human trafficking activities (Mafu, 2019). These economic relationships have created a clandestine economy where different players profit from the trade. This paper highlighted forced labor prostitution and forced domestic work as examples of unfavorable outcomes associated with human trafficking. In this regard, untamed economic interests have a moderating effect on the relationship between human trafficking and national security.

The process of testing this hypothesis was further supported by a theoretical review of the findings, subject to the merits and demerits of the ecological systems theory to the context of the discussion. The ecological systems theory shares a close relationship with the generalized systems theory, which was highlighted in section 2.0 of this paper (Press Books, 2022). The difference between the two stems from their function. The general systems theory is more individualistic, while the ecological systems theory is largely communal.

Hypothesis 2

The second hypothesis investigated in this study claimed that health factors moderate the effects of human trafficking on national security. This statement was supported by the evidence collected from research investigations that have assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the national security interests of the US (Irfan et al., 2022). The hospitalization of the former president Donald Trump at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated how much it was important to treat public health crises as national security emergencies.

The main challenge associated with public health crises is the presentation. They do not threaten national security in the way traditional military forces did. Instead, it permeates through society and with stealth to infect the most vulnerable. Therefore, governments require a more innovative approach of managing such threats. The management of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US showed just how much the government was unprepared for a health crisis. Evidence from other known health crises such as the Ebola pandemic and the infectious Bird Flu provided adequate evidence to affirm the second hypothesis of this study which held that health factors moderated the effects of human trafficking on national security.

Although the findings of this study have affirmed the above-mentioned hypothesis, a growing body of evidence suggest that the US has consistently underfunded its healthcare sector for years and this strategy may have negative security implications for the government (Irfan et al., 2022). Despite the lack of evidence linking public health concerns to national security issues, the US made precedence by declaring certain diseases to be national emergencies. As was highlighted in this paper, certain infectious diseases, such as HIV and AIDS have been declared national security threats.

Independent research studies conducted by the US military indicated that an infectious disease outbreak would be detrimental to everyone. Notably, they said it could affect deployment of forces overs eases and exacerbate social and economic stability in fragile states. The assignment of military officers to perform specific health-based duties during the COVID-19 pandemic suggests how close national security interests are with public health (Irfan et al., 2022). A deeper analysis of this relationship shows that the US public health system is closely related with its political background. This healthcare system is designed to provide high quality healthcare but for those who have the means to gain access to it. Those who do not have such access are omitted and forced to seek alternative remedies.

Critics argue that the COVID-19 crisis despite highlighting the importance of health as security a national security issues has been used negatively to recruit people into human trafficking activities (Harel, 2021). Particularly, some employees are choosing not to subscribe to their employer-based health insurance programs because of the risk of losing their jobs and ultimately their health insurance. As more American consumers are having to deal with this reality, about 80% of Americans still rely on their employer-based health plans. Few of them have their individual insurance plane.

These statistics reveal that although people understand the risk associated with seeking health insurance coverage from their employers, they may find it difficult to change their plans because of the convenience of this type of health program. The current employer-based healthcare system is considered to be costly and inefficient. There are plans to change such a policy because users have noted that it prevents them from getting quality healthcare services affordably. Discussions about having a universal healthcare plan are underway with the US set to join other industrialized counterparts in embracing this model of care. It is believed that such strategies will help to improve the overall welfare of those concerned.

Hypothesis 3

The third hypothesis underpinning this investigation claimed that sociopolitical factors influenced how authorities intervened or managed human trafficking cases. The findings analyzed in this study affirmed this claim because the effects of sociopolitical issues affecting human trafficking emerged as a key theme of this analysis. It was affirmed after exploring the nature of different relationships holding different social and political interests together in the human trafficking trade. Broadly, similar to other forms of businesses, human trafficking is supported by a web of economic interests involving different players of the value chain. It was important to address these interests as the first line of action in addressing their jurisdictions.

The evidence collected in this study has shown that different players have an interest in the human trafficking trade. The effects of global sociopolitical issues on human trafficking was affirmed by the body of evidence collected in this study. However, it should be noted that this effect is moderate as it acts on human motivation without malice. Stated differently, the sociopolitical forces mentioned in this document perceive these forces as neutral – in the manner a referee would mediate disputes in game. The natural entity that is assigned this duty in law is the government. Therefore, all strategies mentioned in this context of review are subject to their authority.

The growth strategy for the development of the labor market should be developed using the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix. The justification for using this framework in the current probe is rooted in its proficiency in driving legitimate as opposed to illegitimate labor growth (Hanlon, 2022). Thus, given that the present study focuses on products and services, this model is appropriate for use in the present study. Researchers use the BCG framework of analysis to develop strategies to promote various products and services (Hanlon, 2022). For purposes of this investigation, the promotion strategy for the labor industry is based on the structure of the BCG matrix, which is depicted in Figure 1.1 below.

As demonstrated above, the process of strategy determination is accomplished by evaluating an industry’s market share with its growth rate. According to the above-mentioned classification, business owners can adopt four strategies of strategy development, which are symbolized by the terms: “dogs”, “stars”, “cows”, and “question marks”. A “dog” strategy is implemented for products that have a low growth potential and market share (Hanlon, 2022). Comparatively, “question marks” refer to problematic products that have a low market share but are positioned in high growth markets (Hanlon, 2022). At the same time, “stars” are the opposite of these kinds of products because they have a high market share and growth rate. Similarly, the “cash cow” strategy is adopted when products are located in low growth but with a high market share.

Given that the illicit labor is illegal, a “cash cow” strategy emerges as the most appropriate plan to implement. This is because low-income labor markets have little potential for growth due to subdued income levels (Hanlon, 2022). However, due to the high number of people who live in these communities, a high market share is attainable. Therefore, according to figure 1.1 above, a “cash cow” strategy is suitable for use when products have low growth and a high market share. Therefore, this plan will form the basis for the development of the growth strategy for the labor industry.

The above-mentioned strategy requires business owners to optimize their products, without necessarily undermining a firm’s ability to generate new products. Despite its suitability for this study, some scholars believe that the “cash cow” strategy is appropriate for well established companies and not new ones (Hanlon, 2022). However, to counter this claim, the labor market is complementary, in the sense that it creates an add-on feature to other industries that need human labor – thus, it is not a new business per se.

Conclusion

This study has explained similarities between different forms of human trafficking and their impact on national security. The evidence supporting this thesis is based on the routine activities theory, which suggests that crime thrives when the right conditions are present. Therefore, it is assumed that criminals deliberately engage in crime after weighing the cost and benefits of doing so. This argument is relevant in understanding the relationship between human trafficking and security in this study.

The relationship between human trafficking and national security is an important one because it influences how countries operate and treat their citizens. Relative to this statement, four objectives were expected to be met at the end of this investigation. They were designed to understand the web of economic interests that abate human trafficking, investigate the link between health costs of human trafficking and national security, identify global sociopolitical issues enabling the trade, and developing economic solutions for minimizing its occurrence. The current body of scholarly evidence sampled in this study affirmed the three hypotheses developed from the above-mentioned objectives.

The main observation made from the arguments presented in this study is the presence of two bases for evaluating the relationship between human trafficking and national security. The first one is the moral argument, which looks at human trafficking as being inherently wrong. This view could be adopted to mean that human trafficking is essentially a bad practice and the national or security organs of the state should keep off. However, there is a second argument, which speaks to the importance of maintaining the economic systems that have supported businesses and livelihoods for a long time. The present inquiry follows this line of reasoning because it highlights the importance of promoting financial literacy as a core subject in management schools.

At the same time, this study has found that both concepts have been explored in isolation. It is unclear why this is so but it could be assumed that the two variables share an indirect relationship. Therefore, it has been difficult for scholars to affirm a direct relationship between them. Furthermore, human trafficking is a complex concept that has an influence in different legitimate and illegitimate economic sectors. Therefore, it is difficult to entangle one aspect of economic governance underpinning the trade without unravelling another. In this regard, the economics of human trafficking appear to be deeply intertwined in the operations of other several business sectors. The main industries supporting the human trafficking trade include hospitality, transport, food, beverage, and entertainment. Regardless of whether people are trafficked legally or not, these economic sectors profit from the trade. Changing the economic balance supporting human trafficking could mean that some of these industries will be affected. Therefore, it is important to adopt a cautious approach when investigating the impact of human trafficking on society.

The complexity of human trafficking could have led to its neglect in academic studies, but in this research paper, human trafficking has been analyzed in the context of its implications to national security. This association has made it tenable and relevant to the economic and policy governance of a state or country. This is why the present investigation was contextualized within the American sociopolitical context to accommodate specific features of the market and its effects on human trafficking activities. At the same time, as has been mentioned in this study, the US is among the biggest markets for human traffickers.

Based on this dominance, the relationship between the US and national security interests and human trafficking activities converge in three critical areas of probe – public health, economic interests of each actor involved and the influence of sociopolitical forces in moderating the relationship between trafficking and security. These variables formed the foundation of the study by defining common infraction points where national and human security interests converge. These centers of control have been previously characterized by extant literature as centers of control that were hitherto only addressed through policy interventions. The current study has sought to achieve the same objective but using economic solutions.

As has been demonstrated in this study, few researchers have addressed human trafficking challenges from an economic perspective. The present study therefore introduces a unique approach to addressing the research problem because it seeks to address known problems affecting the human trafficking trade from an economics lens. However, this approach is supported by specific auxiliary activities that guide the main one, which is the trafficking of persons. Therefore, it is illogical to assume that advancing economic solutions independent of policy ones is fallacious. Additionally, the use of policy interventions without financial motivations threatens the viability of agreements that are developed in such circumstances. Therefore, there need to be a balance between policy and economic interventions to understand the relationship between human trafficking activities and the national security interests of a country.

The role of other actors in the human trafficking trade requires a special mention at this stage of the analysis because their interests are intertwined within some of the recommendations that are outlined in this chapter. Particularly, the role of government agencies and human rights organizations have featured prominently in this area of the study with previous research indicating that such actors are inefficient in their work. This problem has been traced to under-resourcing and the lack of technical skills for law enforcement officers to match the technical and criminal skills of offenders to evade authority. These challenges could be unique to a country or region, thereby highlighting the importance of analyzing such information objectively and contextually.

The caution mentioned above highlights the importance of stating the limitations of this study. The main one is the indicative nature of the findings because the information presented in this paper does not represent the actual relationship between human trafficking and national security issues in the US. Instead, it samples the experiences of the two actors to present a believable set of information that could later bet tested in other research contexts for their credibility and reliability.

The insights highlighted above identify opportunities for addressing the human trafficking challenge that affects many countries today. However, the flow of arguments presented in this study have only accounted for the tangible effects of trafficking victims but the intangible damage is rarely discussed. This background creates room for accepting the challenges that come with freedom because human trafficking essentially refers to curtailing of freedom or choice on individuals. Human trafficking is morally wrong to the extent that it causes emotional and psychological anguish to victims. This statement means that it profits everyone in the value chain except for the victims. This analogy means that most people involved in the human trafficking trade are benefitting from it except the victims.

Proposals for addressing the problem need to account for the role of the victim in this matrix of assessment. Particularly, interventions should be designed to empower the victim to detect threats and help themselves to the extent that they could stand up to a trafficker or seek protection from a person of authority such as a police officer. This statement highlights the importance of recalibrating the flow of value from the aggressor to the victims to make it balance. However, as has been highlighted in this study both sets of people often wield immense power in abusive relationships and one would find that they cannot do without the other. However, this is a fallacious statement because both genders do not need each other to survive. To achieve the goal of a desirable future, it is important for authorities to understand the structural design of human trafficking and poverty is at the center.

Poverty has been highlighted in this study to represent poor economic conditions. In this analogy, there is an undeniable link between poverty and heightened level of human trafficking. (Nwosu et al., 2022). The main problem with making important decisions, such as relocating to a new country, is whether one would be able to afford it or not.

Ethical Reflection

This research paper investigated the nexus between human trafficking and national security from an economics perspective. The main research variables investigated in the inquiry relate to the global sociopolitical issues, economic interests underpinning the trade, and health factors affecting national security. The secondary research method was used to gather data published in the last five years. The research process involved searching for scholarly research materials discussing human trafficking and national security issues, especially in the US. Data was obtained from three databases, including Sage Journals, Emerald Insight, Google Scholar, Springer, and Google Books. The keywords used in this search included human trafficking and national security. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study were based on the publication date. Materials that were older than five years were excluded from the review due to limited relevance to human traffic issues affecting contemporary society.

It is important to conduct an ethical reflection exercise in a research project to account for the interests of people who participated in the probe. Researchers highlight the importance of this process by saying that ethical reflections are an important part of character education (Wang, 2020). The use of human subjects in research attracts a lot of ethical implications in research because of the need for the researcher to protect the interests of the respondents. However, in investigations where human subjects are absent, the ethical implications are different. In this study, the main sources of information were secondary research or published sources. This data source has fewer ethical implications but the researcher paid attention to the proper acknowledgement of sources as good practice in avoid plagiarism. All sources used in this investigation are documented in the reference list and cited accordingly. This plan is consistent with the views of Wang (2020), which highlight the importance of accurate authorship when using other people’s work.

Secondary research has its own drawbacks because it does not offer the same advantages of data analysis as primary research does. Furthermore, it is difficult to find the right context of analysis that would represent the current context of the investigation because of the uniqueness of study. Consequently, the findings highlighted in the study had to be transposed from other research contexts to fit the current study design. This approach to the research issue saved time and cost of having to conduct a primary research, thereby making it possible to complete this research study on time. However, proposals for making improvements will be highlighted in the last sections of this study.

The framework for making ethical decisions in the study was inspired by Brown University’s ethical polices. Therefore, the researcher abided by this principle, especially as it related to the use of other people’s work. Approval was obtained from the institution before proceeding with the research process. The duty-bound approach to ethical thinking informed the researcher’s decision to follow the steps outlined above. This principle suggests that researchers have a duty to do the “right thing.” In the context of the current review, the right thing refers to the proper citation of sources based on the author, year, and type of text written. The researcher adopted this approach after taking into consideration the interests of all the parties involved in the development of the research project. These stakeholders included family members, Brown University, and authors of publications that the researcher used in the current inquiry.

As highlighted above, the researcher complied with the university’s ethical policies, thereby accounting for the university’s ethical requirements. The authors of mentioned publications also received credence for their work based on the proper citation of relevant sources in the reference list section. The interests of the researcher’s family members were equally considered in this inquiry because completing this research project is memorable and family members are best to share such moments with.

Before pursuing this project, the researcher had developed interest in the research topic. The issue of human trafficking is not only a research topic for the present probe but also therapy for the researcher. This is because they know a mother who lost their child working abroad due to forced labor. Thinking about the incident draws a personal story of reflection, which makes it plausible to look for more effective ways of curbing the crime. As has been highlighted in this document, the growth and spread of social media is likely to worsen this problem. The risk of people becoming insensitive to the plight of trafficked victims is also high because today’s short information cycle has made people have a short attention span.

The above-mentioned steps for restoring the dignity of victims of human trafficking are likely to create more awareness about human trafficking. The attempt of this study to highlights its relationship with national security is a bold step of drawing the attention of authorities. It is expected that at the end of this project, human security will be improved and policymakers will become more empowered to develop responsive actions that could change how people live. Having completed this project in a relatively short time, the researcher is contented with the outcome. Overall, completing this research investigation as one of my primary objectives starting this year. It gave me an opportunity to acquire and demonstrate my skills in developing a sound research paper. The data collection and analysis process was perhaps the most difficult part of the probe because I had to check and countercheck different pieces of information for consistency. Evaluating the research data and developing the conclusion came at the end of the analysis

Recommendations

The findings of this study have provided an avenue for understanding the economic relationships that could impact human trafficking activities and national security programs in the US. Future research can change this focus to include the views of scholars from another country to have a more robust view of the findings. Doing so will provide a rich bedrock of data that researchers can use to better develop policies that would prevent chaos from happening in the first place. This statement is true but one of the major problems that researchers have encountered when analyzing national security issues is the presence of the industrial security complex which refers to a shadowy aggregate of individuals who wield immense power.

Collectively, human trafficking and national security provide both technical and personal grounds for developing future improvement strategies.

As has been highlighted in this research paper, the earliest form of human trafficking was the human slave trade era. It draws a lot of similarities with modern slave concepts because they both emphasize the need for servitude. Abolishing this trade provided the framework for the development of most human trafficking laws in America today. Similarly, the policies developed during this era fundamentally changed how labor relations are nurtured in contemporary society. Developing solutions to curb human trafficking in the future requires the same approach to the problem because the experiences of human trafficking victims need to be considered when developing solutions that would be relevant in the future.

• Education: The concept of education has been mentioned in this study as one of the sociopolitical forces impacting human trafficking. It can be used in positive and negative ways, but for purposes of this review, the positive aspects of its conception are useful in developing solutions to the research topic. Relevant authorities need to increase people’s awareness regarding human trafficking. Current interventions are unable to overcome this hurdle because there is not enough public awareness of the crime. The danger is that different forms of the crime will never be punished and it will create a bad precedent for other people to follow. To correct this situation, first, there needs to be an increase in normative pressure from observers and human rights organizations to increase public awareness about human trafficking for people or agents that profit from the trade to stop abating the practice. They also need to increase more public awareness education programs to make people want to care about the problem. Today’s, there isn’t much debate about human trafficking at least from the economic perspective. This outcome can change if people are more educated about the problem and allowed to participate in developing solutions regarding it. In this regard, there needs to be national legislative changes that stiffen the penalties for those found culpable of human trafficking. At the same time, laws need to be strengthened to combat forced labor, which has been highlighted in this document as one of the major forms of human trafficking.
• Policy Changes: The aim of highlighting some of the challenges affecting victims of human trafficking in this probe is to expose weaknesses in law that enable victims to suffer. The evidence gathered in this investigation has shown that differences in law across nations or borders significantly affect the ability of law-enforcement agencies to apprehend culprits. Granted each country has its legal system, but there needs to be a global mainstream way of operation, where human trafficking can be tacked from a “bird’s-eye view.” This system may be guided by bringing lasting change in the enforcement of human trafficking laws. However, the process would require a broad understanding of socioeconomic issues supporting the trade in the first place. From a policy perspective authorities need to come up with more solutions.
• Collaboration: If law enforcement officers work with human right groups and other stakeholders to address human trafficking they would have better success. Currently, these agencies are disjointed and cannot put up an effective response to some of the challenge sin procedures and processes that affect organizations. Given that the current study has focused on US-based institutions, future researchers should consider sharing information with other agencies. For example, broader control can share a wealth of data regarding a fleeing fugitive to any state agency to facilitate the imprisonment of a criminal. Therefore, there is a lot of potential for economic gains if different players associated with the tourism value chain can rely on one another to earn a living.
• Collaboration: Collaboration programs can also be set up between border control officers and to facilitate the entry and exist of persons. Particularly, there needs to be a greater sense of collaboration between the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) and immigration officials, regardless of whether they are working on a missing persons report or have to complete the booking of a new offender.
• Increased Technology Use: Technology as a platform for managing operational activities of law enforcement authorities has been highlighted in section 1.0 of this study as an important consideration in the analysis of the relationship between human trafficking and national security. Its proposed application was meant to ease data entry and management processes, while at the same time providing a platform for integrating immigration services with other law enforcement activities. However, the concept of using technology to improve the relationship between human trafficking and security outcomes has many angles to it. From an abstract view, law enforcement officials have had trouble in detecting and curbing new forms of human trafficking due to the covert nature of the trade.

Technology can be used as a tool for monitoring this market and tracking the movement of cash to apprehend criminals. Data management services to be employed using digital means are equally likely to yield the same outcome. However, given the advanced nature of criminal activities in human trafficking, it is important to use advanced technologies, such as machine learning and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to complete surveillance and monitoring systems. These types of technology are most appropriate to use to prevent human trafficking cases because they can be detected early before they occur. Therefore, the system design could be improved by integrating these new futures in the overall analytical framework. The goal is that they would automate most of the surveillance and monitoring activities.

Technology should also be used in managing data for national security agencies and international agencies involved in solving illegal crime investigations. Sometimes, some of these organizations have a large record of offenders without a back-up manual system, thereby exposing them to the vulnerabilities of systems failure. Having a back-up record of all processes would not only help in making easy reference of data but would likewise lead to better information storing and processing procedures. The main type of technology to use in specific work duties are not classified in this document, but it is expected that every department would make its unique IT resource needs and have them met by the parent company.

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