A theory is a system of interconnected concepts, constructs, and principles that explain specific observations of reality. Personality theories are various assumptions that explain the origin of personality and the determinism of its development (Cattell, 2017). They provide researchers and scholars with an opportunity to understand the nature of the human subject. Modern psychology cannot now offer a single, commonly accepted definition of personality. Many concepts and hypotheses about the nature and mechanisms of personality development are combined in the fundamental theories of personality (Cattell, 2017). Thus, it is essential to research the main theories of personality and establish their similar and different characteristics.
The Concept and Characteristics
Freud formulated the basic principles of the psychodynamic theory of personality in the framework of the developed approach, called classical psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the primary driving factor of personality development is innate instincts, the whole variety of which is united into two main categories: the instincts of life (Eros) and the instincts of death (Thanatos) (Lester, 2019). Freud considered sexual instincts to be the most important for personality development. Subsequently, Freud introduced the term “libido” to refer to the energy of life instincts as a whole. Freud distinguished three basic structures of personality: Id, Ego, and Superego (Lester, 2019). An essential stage in the history of the psychodynamic direction was the emergence of several new theories.
In this way, the authors attempted to revise Freud’s classical theory. Adler and Jung were the most prominent representatives of the psychoanalytical movement, who criticized Freud and created their own theories of personality (Lester, 2019). Adler emphasized the integrity, creativity, and self-determined essence of a person whose driving force for development is the desire for superiority to compensate for feelings of inferiority experienced in childhood. Each person produces a unique way of life in which they strive to achieve their life goals. In contrast to Freud, Jung viewed the libido as a creative life energy that could contribute to constant personal growth (Lester, 2019). Jung distinguished three structures in personality: ego, individual and collective unconscious. The ego represents everything a person is aware of and understands. The personal unconscious contains the experiences repressed and displaced from the realm of consciousness and clusters in the complex, which are bundles of thoughts and feelings (Lester, 2019). The collective unconscious consists of the archaic, original elements of archetypes, which encapsulate the experience of all humanity, predisposing the individual to react in a certain way in response to what occurs to the person.
Phenomenological Theory of Personality
The phenomenological trend emphasizes that human behavior can be understood only in terms of one’s subjective perception and cognition of reality. This approach proceeds from the fact that objective reality is a reality consciously perceived and interpreted by a person at a particular moment. Another essential thesis underlying this approach is that the individual is capable of determining their destiny (Lester, 2019). Individuals are also free to make decisions about their lives and, at the same time, are fully responsible for their own future. The third position of the phenomenological approach reflects the positive nature of people and their desire for self-realization, development, and perfection. The phenomenological method is most consistently seen in the views of the American psychologist Rogers (Lester, 2019). The specialist considered that human beings are positive and reasonable creatures who genuinely wish to live in harmony with themselves and others. Therefore, they can best demonstrate the best qualities that are inherent.
Dispositional Personality Theory
This direction is often referred to as trait theory because it assumes that people have certain drives that determine them. These dispositions are designed to respond in a specific way to different situations; these dispositions became known as traits (Lester, 2019). That is, people are constant in their actions, thoughts, and feelings regardless of circumstances, events, and life experiences. Each personality is unique and can be defined by describing its specific traits. Gordon Allport and Hans Eysenck are the most influential representatives of this direction (Lester, 2019). Therefore, the underlying tenets of the theory are that individuals show a certain consistency in their concessions, thoughts, and emotions. Indeed, the essence of personality is defined by themes of dispositions that people bring through life, which belong to them and are inseparable from them.
Behavioral Theories of Personality
This branch is often called learning theories due to the fact that its central thesis is the assertion that personality is the experience a person has acquired in life, that is, what a person has learned. The principal basis of personality growth is the environment in the broad sense of the word, and reflexes and social skills are the primary elements of personality. There are two basic directions in behavioral theories of personality (Abbott, 2021). The first is represented by the works of well-known American psychologists Watson and Skinner, which outline the main ideas of classical behaviorism. According to which external circumstances determine human behavior. From the opinion of representatives of the second direction, human behavior is regulated instead by internal factors, such as goals, expectations, and self-perception, then by external ones. Representatives of this direction are Bandura and Rotter (Abbott, 2021). Hence, according to the behavioral theory of personality, personality structure is a complexly arranged hierarchy of reflexes or social abilities.
Cognitive Theories of Personality
Cognitive personality approach highlights the impact of intellectual functions on a person’s conduct. The founder of this approach was the American psychologist George Kelly (Abbott, 2021). The psychologist believed that people are explorers, attempting to understand what occurs to them and to predict what will become of them in the future. In this context, human behavior is greatly influenced by cognitive and intellectual processes. A person perceives and interprets the world with the help of specific models, which Kelly called constructs (Abbott, 2021). Therefore, personality is an organized system of essential constructs. That is, personality is the way a person perceives and interprets their life experiences. In addition, friendship, love, and normal relationships are only possible when people have similar constructs.
Psychosocial Theory
Erikson’s theory of personality development emerged from the practice of psychoanalysis. The central point of Erikson’s theory of the development of the self is the assumption that a person goes through several stages in the course of life that are universal for all humanity. The epigenetic principle of maturation governs the process of unfolding these stages. The epigenetic concept of development is based on the notion that each life cycle stage occurs at a specific time (Nwoye, 2015). It is also founded on the idea that a fully functioning personality is formed only by progressing through all stages of its development.
Similarities and Differences of Theories
It is essential to mention that the driving force behind personality development is the past, in other words, innate qualities, according to Freud’s theory. Thus, psychodynamic theories of personality differ from the cognitive theory of personality in that in the former; these motivating forces should be searched for in the future (Lester, 2019). At the same time, Rogers, in the phenomenological theory of personality, argued that in the study of developmental moving forces, one should proceed from the present (Lester, 2019). Accordingly, these theories have distinct ideas about where influences on the evolution of a particular personality originate.
Significantly, the dispositive theory of personality also indicates that although people are unique, their actions have a certain consistency determined by traits. In turn, the behavioral theory of personality suggests that the main determinants influencing people’s actions are experiences. Thus, the development of personalities depends on the environment where they form skills and reflexes (Lester, 2019). The distinction between these theories is that, unlike dispositional theory, behavioral theory’s primary determinant influencing people is environment instead of disposition.
The psychosocial theory is similar to the behavioral approach, as their basic thesis is that personality depends on external circumstances. Accordingly, human beings should pass through certain stages to enhance themselves or to adapt to certain conditions (Lester, 2019). An important statement that characterizes the phenomenological trend is the idea that people are capable of determining their own fate. In the cognitive theory, intellectual processes play an integral role, according to which people can also influence the development of their personality. Jung, complementing the psychodynamic theory of personality, also mentioned that a person has the ability to develop through creative libido (Lester, 2019). Therefore, the theories of personality tried to explain the formation of personality and the factors influencing it; accordingly, they have different and similar properties.
The Multicultural Perspective
A multicultural perspective will enable each individual to choose their path of development. At the same time, people will be assured that the general pattern of society will not complicate their choices, and they will not be judged. In a non-multicultural environment, individuals tend to abandon their identities and subject themselves to collective tendencies (Nwoye, 2015). This results in people missing the right to self-development. Accordingly, there is no individualization of personal identity growth, where the individual can rely on their perspective and creative abilities to find a path in life. This confirms Erikson’s theory, which argued that the formation of the human personality is significantly influenced by society and culture (Nwoye, 2015). Thus, a multicultural perspective will enable people to avoid crises and undergo all stages of development.
South African Concepts
It is significant to mention that the subject of identity formation has considerable relevance in the South African context. This is explained by the fact that only individuals who have formed their worldview and identity can influence the political and social processes of the state. If people have not developed an individual identity, then they cannot question unjust laws or the hierarchy of society. Luther expected to be able to affect the development of justice and the rule of law in South Africa as a result of this activity (Nwoye, 2015). At the same time, like Luther, who created an alternative model of the Christian life, Mandela dismantled the apartheid order. The primary objective was to create a system where citizens with multiracial identities could live together without discrimination.
The activist defended personal identity and fought against the collective expression created by apartheid ideology. In this way, these people had one feature that united them: the desire to resist the system and develop their own identities. The article notes the example of an accountant who should become the successor to a grandmother who was a healer (Nwoye, 2015). In reality, the man did not have the ability or desire to accept this role, but society’s approved notions and ideology pressured the man to accept it. The primary reasoning was that a negative act would incur the wrath of the ancestors. The young man wanted to preserve a career and not succumb to society (Nwoye, 2015). However, African traditions were stronger, so the man was forced to leave the borders of his native state. This case demonstrates that a person has the right to choose, and even in South Africa, he can choose to develop an identity rather than succumb to a collective idea.
Another narrative suggests that Egbo, a young intellectual with knowledge of African and Western culture, became the successor to the grandfather in the tribe. However, the individual had the right of choice; that is why the man identified as the chief of the African tribe (Nwoye, 2015). Thus, South Africa has a significant influence on the environment, which does not always positively influence the formation of identity. As a rule, people perform the actions that society demands of them. Although even in a traditional ideological society, it is possible to develop one’s own identity.
Conclusion
Thus, personality theory can be explained as a set of hypotheses or assumptions regarding the nature and mechanisms of identity development. All personality theories attempt to answer questions such as what a person is and form their vision of identity. At the same time, a multicultural perspective plays an essential role in identity development since it is this perspective that provides the basis for identity formation. From the example of South Africa, it is clear that the absence of this perspective leads to the creation of a collective identity, which does not permit the separate formation of each individual.
References
Abbott, T. (2021). Social and personality development. Routledge.
Cattell, R. B. (2017). The scientific analysis of personality. Routledge.
Lester, D. (2019). Theories of personality: A systems approach. Routledge.
Nwoye, A. (2015). The multicultural relevance of Erikson’s Young Man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. Psychotherapy and Politics International, 13(1), 67–78.
Pennington, D. C. (2018). Essential personality. Routledge.