Introduction
Scenarios of self-sacrifice occupy an essential place in the literature of ancient writers and, as a rule, aim to reveal specific values and moral obligations that a particular character follows. However, such plots are part of not only fictional works but also serious historiographic records. As an example, one can compare the approaches of two great historiographers of their eras – Sima Qian, the author of The First Emperor, and Livy, the prominent ancient Roman historian and creator of The History of Rome. Each of them resorts to the theme of suicide not to embellish one’s work but to convey the characters’ values and moral convictions. Honor and dignity are the aspects that both Livy and Qian put into the concept of self-sacrifice and demonstrate from the perspective of responsibility for preserving an individual high moral character.
Authors’ Approaches to Demonstrate Self-Sacrifice
Livy and Qian express the concept of self-sacrifice by depicting the characters who went through hard trials and had to commit suicide to preserve their honor and dignity. In his The History of Rome, Livy describes Lucretia, the warlord’s wife, who faced the violence of one of the king’s sons. The author describes the woman’s condition as follows: “Lucretia saw no help at hand, only imminent death” (Livy 80). Dishonor for her was the same as the most terrible punishment. The mores of ancient Rome and, in particular, moral values were an essential aspect of interpersonal relationships and largely determined the status of a person, his or her authority, and behavioral norms. Based on this, one can assume that Lucretia saw no other way out for herself than to commit suicide to prevent the loss of the appearance of a decent woman. Livy quotes her last words: “what can be well when a woman has lost her honor?” (81). As a result, Lucretia’s final decision did not contradict her convictions, and the author does not dispute this position, but, conversely, shows this situation in the context of heroism and self-sacrifice.
The concept of self-sacrifice that Qian represents is also based on dignity, but the author places a key emphasis on duty and responsibility as the values that characterize male honor. Unlike Livy, Qian describes the acts of the men who commit suicide, Prince Fusu and Prince Gao. In the first case, the young Prince who received a letter from his father demanding to execute him saw no other choice but to carry out this order. To all the reasons not to do this and try to make sure that the letter is authentic by receiving additional confirmation, Fusu gives an unambiguous answer. He states as follows: “if he bestows death upon me although he is my father, how can he nevertheless be asked for confirmation?” (Qian 35). This position is an example of military prowess and male honor, and the value of these concepts in the context of constant intrigue that Qian describes is high. Therefore, Fusu’s brave decision to commit suicide emphasizes his courage and sets him apart from the crowd of other officials who did not have the boldness to follow the common laws of honor and dignity.
Prince Gao’s example shows a similar prowess that Fusu demonstrates by committing suicide. As Qian states, the man “wished to flee, but he was afraid his clan would be arrested and exterminated” (37). The decision to stay and sacrifice oneself is worthy and deserves respect as an act that shows Gao’s adherence to the highest military values of his time. While comparing Livy’s and Qian’s approaches, one might suggest that male and female actions are difficult to compare due to the scale of their self-sacrifice. However, Lucretia’s suicide was no less significant than those Fusu and Gao committed. Taking the knife from the woman’s breast, Brutus exclaims: “I will pursue Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his wicked wife and all his children, with a sword, fire, and indeed with whatever violence I can” (Livy 81). This oath led to a riot that marked the beginning of the Roman Republic, and the death of the woman was not in vain. Thus, each suicide is an act of self-sacrifice that both the men and the woman committed to preserving honor and their own dignity, thereby following the vital values of their eras.
Alternative Interpretation of Self-Sacrifice
Alternatively, Livy and Qian may interpret the suicides of the individuals they describe as acts of fear. For instance, Lucretia whom the royal son forces to obey his will and rapes can be in awe of public censure and decided to take this step. The woman is afraid of her husband’s anger and addresses him: “the marks of another man are in your bed” (Livy 81). The morals of that time may not allow the woman to come to terms with what happened, and self-sacrifice is the result of fear. One can apply the same reasoning to the characters of Qian’s book. Fusu fears his father’s anger and does not dare to contradict his orders. He realizes that the ruler is ready to fulfill his will sooner or later, and, fearing further torment, he chooses the simplest way to get rid of anxiety. With regard to Prince Gao, similar motives drive him because he is afraid of his clan and severe punishment. Therefore, the acts of self-sacrifice of all the three characters are attempts to get rid of the fear of an impending fate.
Rebuttal of the Alternative Version
Despite the possible interpretation of the reasons that prompted the characters in question to commit suicide, this version is not substantiated, and the context of the narratives confirms this. For instance, Lucretia is aware of the situation clearly and states as follows: “only my body has been violated; my mind is not guilty” (Livy 81). The woman understands that she is not to blame for what happened. Nonetheless, instead of trying to justify herself, she makes a proud decision to commit suicide so that her husband and his associates will retaliate for her.
Gao’s and Fusu’s actions are also not the outcomes of fear. Fusu realizes that the letter from his father may be fake, but he is not ready to put up with this and believes that the only way to preserve his honor is to commit suicide. Meng Tian discourages him: “if one kills oneself when a single messenger comes, how does one know that he is not being deceitful?” (Qian 35). However, Fusu is true to his conscience and dignity and is not ready to continue life since he knows about the betrayal of one of his closest people. Gao’s motives are similar: he does not intend to take responsibility for the attack on his clan, and in this situation, he sees a fair decision to sacrifice himself to avoid mass executions. Thus, the claim that fear is the main driver of all three suicides is false.
Conclusion
The values that Qian and Livy convey through their characters’ suicides concern human honor. The examples of Lucretia in The History of Rome and Fusu and Gao in The First Emperor confirm that the writers emphasize self-sacrifice as an act of preserving individual dignity. Despite the possible idea that fear is the key motivator for suicide, the characters’ actions and reasoning reflect their self-righteousness, which proves the truth of the original thesis.
Works Cited
Livy. The History of Rome. Translated by Valerie M. Warrior, Hackett Publishing, 2006.
Qian, Sima. The First Emperor. Translated by Raymond Dawson, Oxford University Press, 2007.