The blindness of justice is a subject challenged by the investigation of biases and patterns found in criminal justice systems worldwide. Australia’s Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders constitute an example of how economic and social discrepancies that colonialism entails can manifest in incarceration rates. Indigenous Australians are disproportionately imprisoned thorough the country’s territory. Although Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people form a small part of the total population (around three percent), for instance, women belonging to these groups constitute one-third of female prisoners (Kendall et al., 2020). Generally, mass imprisonment can be associated with ongoing consequences of the country’s history and associated socioeconomic factors – the disproportionate imprisonment rate is both a consequence of social disparity and its contributor. The situation could not but influence indigenous communities’ emotional well-being and mental health, which inevitably attracted researchers’ attention and generated a substantial body of literature.
The relationship between prisons and mental health appears to be a problematic one. Several studies have investigated the state of mental health of incarcerated Indigenous Australians. Ogloff et al. (2017), in their research involving around one hundred twenty Aboriginal prisoners, demonstrated a high prevalence of mental illness (depression, psychosis, and anxiety) and low rates of care provision in this regard. Furthermore, heightened substance misuse, particularly alcohol dependence, was also identified (Ogloff et al., 2017). Although the study provides in-depth insight into the clinical picture of mental illness among imprisoned Aboriginals, it does not allow generalizations about the extent of mental problems prevalence. On the other hand, Heffernan et al. (2016) concentrated on substance use disorder, also indicating a high spread of the issue, as sixty-six percent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in custody experience alcohol and cannabis dependence. The researchers claim that their “findings also support the role of substance misuse as a significant contributor to the disproportionate incarceration rate for Indigenous people” (Heffernan et al., 2016, p. 5). Nonetheless, this statement perhaps encourages a partially false correlation, ignoring that substance misuse and massive imprisonment may have common ground.
Disproportionate imprisonment can cause further social exclusion and propel racism that Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders commonly undergo, leading to mental health problems. Calma et al. (2017) discuss the mental health gap, which supposedly contributes to the registered ten-year life expectancy difference between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians. The scholars state that the former report psychological distress 2.7 times more often, are more likely to be hospitalized, and have elevated suicide incidence – these indicators are even higher among prisoners (Calma et al., 2017, p. 258). Nonetheless, Dirkzwager and Nieuwbeerta (2018), based on their study of male prisoners in correctional facilities in the Netherlands, claim that imprisonment does not harm the mental state. Moreover, as stated in the study (Dirkzwager & Nieuwbeerta, 2018), “inmates who entered detention with pre-existing mental health problems and problematic alcohol/ drugs use showed mental health improvements” (p. 1). It is possible that people suffering from mental illnesses, mostly from indigenous communities, are more likely to be arrested. Nonetheless, cultural differences and potential distinctions in the treatment of Dutch and Aboriginal prisoners in respective systems may vary, accounting for these contradictory conclusions.
The results of Dirkzwager and Nieuwbeerta’s research somewhat oppose several other studies, especially their conclusions concerning the improvement of mental health throughout detention. For instance, Heffernan et al. (2015) explored trauma experiences and PTSD in relation to other mental health issues of the considered population in custody. The scholars uncovered that a large part not only of incarcerated indigenous people, but its overall population met the criteria needed to be diagnosed with PTSD (Heffernan et al., 2015). Forced removal of children and state policies and practices that sustain financial, cultural, and social discrimination are named as potential causes (Heffernan et al., 2015). The research accentuates the need to improve and specialize mental health service provision in prisons, which is potentially its primary strength. Nonetheless, the study under consideration does not indicate what impacts detention has on PTSD symptoms and its clinical manifestations among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people, creating opportunities for future investigation.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island women constitute an especially vulnerable group. It is stated that imprisoned indigenous women endure more negative health outcomes than all other categories (non-indigenous men and women and indigenous men) (Kendall et al., 2020). Still, the knowledge gap regarding the reasons and mechanisms of such outcomes persisted for a long time. Kendall et al. (2020) performed two extensive investigations of indigenous women’s health. The scholars (Kendall et al., 2020) demonstrated that “interactions with prison staff sustain and compound intergenerational trauma and health inequity by failing to recognize when Aboriginal women are distressed and denying Aboriginal women healthcare” (p. 10). Their other study (Kendall et al., 2019) corroborated the notion that imprisonment causes higher rates of mental health problems among Aboriginal women. Despite the fact that their results may not be generalized due to sampling, the two studies serve to bridge the knowledge gap concerning the impact of imprisonment on Aboriginal women’s emotional well-being and mental health. By approaching the problem from two different perspectives, the studies encourage a thorough understanding of what issues the women encounter and how correctional facilities react.
Whether the country’s correctional facilities provide the necessary treatment for pre-existing conditions and efficiency of the provided care is a significant facet of the issue. It is seemingly noncontroversial to state that prisons do not meet the needs of many Aboriginal offenders. For instance, Shepherd et al. (2016) enumerate significant problems, the treatment of which is somewhat overlooked or inefficient during detention, namely: substance misuse, psychological disturbances, aggressiveness, and lack of adherence to treatment (Shepherd et al., 2016). One of the study’s primary disadvantages is the lack of statements from women and the analysis of recidivism, which is systematically mentioned. Even though the study’s participants’ sampling size is limited, it supports the results from other discussed articles. Overall, the paper outlines the areas for improvement and emphasizes the urgency of the problem.
Over-representation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people in correctional facilities signals social institutions’ failure to reduce the ever-present effects of colonization. The considerable body of literature that the subject occasioned demonstrates the extent of mental health issues such as PTSD, depression, anxiety, and substance abuse in indigenous communities. Morevoer, the studies indicate how the cultural maladaptation and the lack of regard to indigenous people’s needs result in disproportionate incarceration and prevalence of mental health problems. These two problems further aggravate each other – mental health issues can increase the chances of a repeated sentence, during which the mental state further deteriorates. The analyzed studies serve to attract attention from medical professions, policy-makers, and the general public to how indigenous people’s mental health is addressed in correctional facilities. Future research can be dedicated to creating mental health interventions aimed at imprisoned indigenous groups, which seems to be a lacune in the information currently.
References
Calma, T., Dudgeon, P. and Bray, A. (2017), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing and mental health. Aust Psychol, 52, 255-260. Web.
Dirkzwager, A. J. E., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (2018). Mental health symptoms during imprisonment: A longitudinal study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1-12. Web.
Heffernan, E., Andersen, K., Davidson, F. and &, S. (2015), PTSD among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in custody in Australia: Prevalence and correlates. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28: 523-530. Web.
Heffernan, E., Davidson, F., Andersen, K., & Kinner, S. (2016). Substance use disorders among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in custody: A public health opportunity. Health & Justice, 4(1), 1-7. Web.
Kendall, S., Lighton, S., Sherwood, J., Baldry, E., & Sullivan, E. (2019). Holistic conceptualizations of health by incarcerated Aboriginal women in New South Wales, Australia. Qualitative Health Research, 29(11), 1549–1565. Web.
Kendall, S., Lighton, S., Sherwood, J., Baldry, E., & Sullivan, E. A. (2020). Incarcerated aboriginal women’s experiences of accessing healthcare and the limitations of the “equal treatment” principle. International Journal for Equity in Health, 19(1), 1-14. Web.
Ogloff, J. R. P., Pfeifer, J. E., Shepherd, S. M., & Ciorciari, J. (2017). Assessing the mental health, substance abuse, cognitive functioning, and social/emotional well-being needs of Aboriginal prisoners in Australia. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 23(4), 398–411. Web.
Shepherd, S. M., Ogloff, J. R. P., & Thomas, S. D. M. (2016). Are Australian prisons meeting the needs of Indigenous offenders? Health & Justice, 4(1), 4-13. Web.