Abstract
After having a baby, millions of women across the globe face the challenge of postpartum depression (PPD). This condition is characterized by emotional, cognitive, and behavioral changes, including sadness, anxiety, loss of interest, fatigue, fear, and anger. One of the most complex issues about PPD is its diagnosis because many women do not find it necessary to address a professional healthcare provider and define critical risk factors and childbirth as a reason for depression. As a result, PPD remains severely underdiagnosed, and effective treatment cannot be offered at an early stage.
PPD may lead to the progress of suicidal thoughts, self-harm, child abuse, and other mental health complications. During the last several decades, new treatment approaches have been discussed to prove the appropriateness of novel drugs and interventions. This literature review will analyze the main characteristics of PPD and summarize available pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for women diagnosed with depression after childbirth.
In addition to lifestyle modifications, support groups, and regular physical activities, patients with PPD can be prescribed antidepressants or serotonin inhibitors. Each treatment technique provokes certain changes in female behaviors and helps minimize risks and complications. Healthcare providers must pay much attention to young mothers during postpartum periods.
Introduction
Depression is common in people of different ages, genders, and races. Sadness, irritability, poor appetite, or bad sleep may emerge because of various reasons or even without a particular cause. However, when a person is experiencing the same problems for a certain period, depression can be diagnosed. In women, depression is provoked under different conditions, including social factors, the environment, and other stressful events. However, when depression occurs after having a baby, there is a specific term – postpartum depression (PPD).
According to the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-6, 2013, as cited in Kaufman et al., 2022), PPD is a unipolar major depression during gestation or four weeks after childbirth. Women with PPD usually present with such symptoms as excessive worry, frustration with their current status, guilt, and insomnia (Manso-Córdoba et al., 2020). Some families do not pay much attention to these changes and neglect the importance of professional help and care. However, depression is a serious disease, leading to problematic relationships, alcohol or drug dependence, and even suicidal thoughts. Thus, depression in women has to be properly recognized and treated promptly.
Millions of people across the globe define themselves as depressed but fail to visit a healthcare provider and change a situation. Nearly 50% of mothers do not address a professional to deal with their depressive symptoms (Langdon, 2023). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2022) reports that one in ten American women experience at least one episode of major depression annually. Addressing the global context, about one in seven women are diagnosed with PPD, and only 80% fully recover (Langdon, 2023). There are many effective approaches to diagnosing and treating PPD.
A healthcare provider usually talks to a patient about her feelings and thoughts. Several questions are asked to define the symptoms of depressed mood, no interest in daily activities, fatigue, insomnia, and poor concentration since the baby’s birth (Chow et al., 2021). Treatment plans depend on the patient, her desire to cooperate, available resources, and the level of support.
Psychotherapy includes cognitive-behavioral interventions, interpersonal therapies, and group meetings (Batt et al., 2020). Antidepressants and other pharmacological approaches are applied in severe cases when it is evident that the patient needs help stabilizing her mood and behavior (Yoon et al., 2022). Lifestyle modifications and behavioral changes are recommended to ensure the patient’s recovery process is ongoing.
Despite a variety of treatment options and recommendations, multiple disagreements and gaps exist in analyzing the effectiveness of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions. Each researcher relies on systematic reviews, original studies, and experiments to introduce the best option for women with depression. This paper aims to analyze the methods of treatment PPD patients usually get from their healthcare providers and clarify if its prevention is possible.
The rationale for this project lies in a constantly increasing number of women with depressive symptoms. Giving childbirth is a female priority that might become a challenge for a woman. Thus, the focus is to review how PPD develops and what treatment plans are offered. PPD has already become a public health issue because it affects a significant number of patients across the globe. Although its core cause, childbirth, is wrong and unethical to prevent, it is high time to learn how to prevent birth-associated depression.
Review of the Literature
In this literature review, 12 peer-reviewed articles and two reports of professional organizations are chosen for analysis. The material contributes to a better understanding of the essence of PPD, risk factors, symptoms, and treatment interventions. The CDC statistics and the report by Kimberly Langdon, a Doctor of Medicine who graduated from Ohio State University, are reliable online sources. The articles contain the results of original studies and systematic reviews to explain the current prevalence of PPD and the choice of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions to help patients with PPD.
Depression among women is a common mental health disease that can be diagnosed and treated. CDC (2022) uses the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System to show that about one in eight women with live childbirth have PPD symptoms. This report aims to introduce recent findings about PPD prevalence, symptoms, risk factors, and treatment. The major rationale of this source is to provide researchers and healthcare professionals with the background of the disease. The lists of risk factors and symptoms are long, not to miss any detail about the condition, focusing on family history, social factors, and demographic differences. This website article can be applied as a primary source to analyze the effectiveness of PPD treatment in the United States.
The important statistics about PPD can be found in the report introduced by Langdon on her official site, Postpartum Depression. The author indicates the numbers taken globally and nationally, including in countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Philippines, and proves that PPD prevalence is about 16-40% (Langdon, 2023). In addition, based on medical reports and reviews, Langdon (2023) finds out that American Indian women have the highest rating of PPD, about 16.6%, while Asian women have the lowest rating, 7.4%. It is also admitted that about 10% of men who have recently become new fathers might experience PPD symptoms (Langdon, 2023). These facts become a critical rationale to add the source to the current literature review because of the offered environmental and medical risk factors that increase the importance of PPD treatment and prevention.
PPD symptoms in women are usually the same as those of major depressive disorder (MDD) in all patients. However, the main difference is that PPD has to be triggered by postpartum factors, like biological changes and hormonal levels (Yu et al., 2021). In their article, the authors focus on biological (omics-based) markers to explain the diagnostic features of PPD and its etiological models (biological, psychological, integrated, and evolutionary).
Investigating genetic causes of depression helps reveal the pathophysiological mechanism and improves treatments (Yu et al., 2021). There is a significant gap in examining genetic contributions to PPD compared to major depression. Yu et al. (2021) present a review of the impact of the serotonin transporter gene, estrogen receptor gene, and other allelic gene variations on depression. The hormonal withdrawal theory and integrated models based on biological and psychological theories may be applied to recognize PPD symptoms early.
Examining PPD signs and progress in women is a current topic for discussion. In the article by Batt et al. (2020), attention is paid to the differences between PPD and depression outside the perinatal period. The authors aim to review the evidence for and against the distinction between these two types of mental health disorders concerning their epidemiology, causes, and treatment. The significance of the chosen study may be associated with maternal and offspring mortality and morbidity (Batt et al., 2020).
The review method allows the researchers to gather and analyze different perspectives introduced by the National Institute of Mental Health, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and other scientific reports. Batt et al. (2020) prove that many answers related to PPD and MDD remain poorly answered, and further investigations are needed to reveal the pathophysiologic triggers and referrals for treatment. However, symptomatologic findings such as anxiety, obsessive thoughts, restlessness, impaired concentration, and disrupted sleep six weeks after delivery can be used in the current project to describe PPD and its impact on women’s health.
The impact PPD has on mothers should no longer be ignored because it changes interpersonal relationships and the quality of the child’s life in general. In their study, Manso-Córdoba et al. (2020) hypothesize that healthcare providers should ask their female patients about PPD symptoms to ensure they access the necessary mental health services. A secondary data analysis obtained from Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring Systems helped identify the at-risk patients, and self-administrated surveys were sent to randomly chosen participants. A descriptive statistical analysis proves a positive association between the identification of symptoms and the decision to request help (Manso-Córdoba et al., 2020).
Increased obstetric visits, communication with women recently giving birth, and prenatal education are important for providing information about PPD and its prediction. Being underdiagnosed, PPD can create additional threats to new mothers and their children, and healthcare providers must improve their participation and explain the access to health services. Thus, the findings of this article play an important role in creating new preventive and therapeutic interventions for expecting and new mothers.
Treatments of PPD vary, depending on patients, their needs, symptoms, and desire to cooperate with healthcare providers. Chow et al. (2021) introduce a systematic review to discuss the interventions for PPD and appraise their effectiveness. MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Library are the databases to identify the reviews (83 out of 842 meet the inclusion criteria) related to the chosen topic (Chow et al., 2021). Telemedicine and the prescription of antidepressants are proven to be the most effective treatment approaches for women with PPD, while cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and physical activities remain equivocal (Chow et al., 2021).
There are many antidepressants with fewer adverse effects for patients to stabilize their moods and behaviors. Chinese herbal medicine is considered a reliable alternative method to help women who prefer natural substances (Chow et al., 2021). Telephone support results in low depression scores, underlying the role of nurses and therapists in providing their patients with adequate and prompt information. All these interventions have their positive and negative aspect, and this study can be further developed to identify the best treatment options for depressed women after delivery.
Cochrane reviews introduce a solid background for understanding the effectiveness of PPD treatment plans for female patients. Dennis et al. (2019) assess the effects of physical therapies, nutraceuticals, and herbal remedies and compare these approaches with usual PPD care. In addition to defining depression, its common symptoms, and common recommendations, the authors analyze the main characteristics of bright light therapy, yoga, repetitive stimulation, and other physical exercises that might help women (Dennis et al., 2019).
It is not enough to give some medications and neglect the physical condition of the patient. Thus, different forms of physical exercises contribute to reducing PPD symptoms and stress and underlying the worth of maternal perceived social support (Dennis et al., 2019). This study is useful for understanding quality classifications and conducting sensitivity analysis in reviewing PPD treatments.
The progress of puerperal psychiatric problems may be triggered by different factors, and PPD has a list of risks that make patients vulnerable to this mental health disorder. Dubey et al. (2021) conducted a cross-sectional observational study with mothers who have recently delivered and received follow-up care. Their goal is to investigate PPD prevalence and risk factors, focusing on sociodemographic characteristics, education, family incomes, and the environment. The rationale for their study is the unpredictability of PPD complications, leading to impaired life quality and mental health challenges in the mother and the child (Dubey et al., 2021).
The authors find that PPD in mothers from 18 to 35 years is prevalent in about 31% (Dubey et al., 2021). Low educational status, low incomes, rural areas, preterm delivery, and health problems in newborns cause negative emotions in young mothers and become crucial risk factors for the condition. These findings can be applied in the current study to prove how people treat the chosen issues and what solutions they have in their situations.
There are many treatment methods to help women with PPD, and one of the common approaches is CBT. Simhi et al. (2021) propose a workbook-based intervention, “What Am I Worried About?” based on several cognitive-behavioral techniques, mindfulness activities, and professional guidance. The authors discuss the results of their replication pilot study with a pre-and post-test open trial design in which postpartum women were invited. Several group and individual phone consultations were organized according to the chosen protocol, and questionnaires were offered to gather the participants’ opinions.
The goals of this study included the assessment of the chosen behavioral intervention and the examination of the preferred phone format to reveal depression signs at an early stage. Simhi et al. (2021) conclude the intervention’s safety, feasibility, and effectiveness in addressing mild and moderate PPD. Communication with mothers is a necessary step to predict the adverse effects of isolation, social distancing, and role changes in a short period.
However, in most cases, behavioral improvements are hard to achieve with the help of cognitive interventions and oral support. Therefore, many women diagnosed with PPD address healthcare experts to be prescribed some medications and achieve positive results in a short period. Ali et al. (2021) investigate brexanolone, the FDA-approved drug to treat PPD. Their aim is to review the pharmacology of this substance and discuss the recent clinical outcomes in managing depressive symptoms and cost-related barriers.
Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression is used to evaluate the effects of brexanolone on reducing depression and prove its help for women. However, the authors also identify several shortcomings, including the necessity of continuous infusion of the medication and pulse oximetry monitoring (Ali et al., 2021). Further studies to examine brexanolone in postpartum female patients are required to eliminate the challenges and educate healthcare providers.
Another study devoted to brexanolone for treating PPD in adult women was introduced by Cornet et al., with the purpose of examining the drug’s lasting relief of depressive symptoms and obligatory follow-ups. Taking into consideration that brexanolone is one of the novel pharmacological treatment options for women, attention should be paid to its dosage, mechanism of action, modulations, original use, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Cornet et al. (2021) chose the method of systematic review to gather and analyze the findings offered by other researchers, and several clinical studies focused on understanding the safety and efficacy of brexanolone.
Its administration has to be properly divided within 60 hours. The initiate infusion of 30 mcg/kg/hr, 60 mc/kg/hr in 4-24 hours, 90 mc/kg/hr in the 24-52 hours, a 60-dose between 52 and 56 hours, and the last dose (30) between 56 and 60 hours (Cornet et al., 2021). The major contribution of this project is the discussion of the role of neurosteroids in treating PPD and improving maternal health.
The analysis of the current treatment of PPD reveals certain benefits and limitations of each approach. Frieder et al. (2019) aim to review the clinical characteristics of PPD, pharmacotherapies, and recent neurobiological findings and compare novel and common approaches. A literature search of current and relevant studies from such databases as MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PubMed introduces a clear rationale for this article to use only randomized clinical trials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses. Much information about PPD symptoms, risk factors, prevalence in the United States, and complications is given. Pharmacological interventions (antidepressants, progestin, and serotonin inhibitors) are recommended (Frieder et al., 2019).
Treatment goals may be prophylactic to prevent the progress of depression in women. The evaluation of the work of neuroactive steroids has proved to be useful because, during pregnancy, plasma levels in the central nervous system rise and fall rapidly (Frieder et al., 2019). Thus, the implication of novel pharmacological treatment is discussed to provide patients and physicians with options.
The introduction of allopregnanolone to treat depression in adult patients promoted the development of new studies and reviews of the most effective pharmacotherapy options. In their study, Kaufman et al. (2022) used the literature review to find appropriate sources in Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane, and Embase databases and study the evidence base for standard-of-care antidepressants and other therapeutics for PPD. Their goal is to discuss the impact of different pharmacological strategies for helping women with depression.
However, another critical rationale is to explain how the same interventions might affect infants because female patients use medications during lactation (Kaufman et al., 2022). The authors conclude that clinicians have to focus on different factors, like breastfeeding, psychiatric diagnoses, the efficacy of the already prescribed drugs, and medical comorbidities, to ensure the necessity of a new treatment plan. Infant drug exposure during lactation is poorly addressed in recent studies, and this article contributes to a better understanding of this aspect.
To examine the effectiveness of innovations in treating depression, it is important to gather as many opinions as possible to check their credibility, gaps, and recommendations. Yoon et al. (2022) share the results of several credible studies and present a case of a patient with a history of MDD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and self-injurious behaviors after delivery. The goal is to use the case and discuss updated pharmacological treatments for PPD.
According to the authors, the postpartum period is a difficult time characterized by unique demands and fluctuations in women’s bodies (Yoon et al., 2022). Current pharmacotherapies include prescription serotonin reuptake inhibitors, antidepressants (vilazodone or aripiprazole), and allopregnanolone analogs. In addition, CBT is offered to ensure young mothers obtain professional counseling and family support. The rationale for this study is to discuss the combinations of drugs and reveal positive and adverse effects. This information helps to understand how to treat PPD and treat novel options in pharmacotherapy.
Each of the chosen sources has specific purposes, methods, and rationales to explain the researchers’ findings and implications. PPD is a common psychological problem in female patients, and its treatment has to be thoroughly examined and explained. It is observed that most scholars use the literature review method to gather material and share their results in a systematic way. Using real clinical cases is a good way to notice changes in patients and evaluate the effectiveness of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions.
Discussion
Depression is a complicated disorder because it is not always possible to identify what causes this condition, which outcomes may be expected, and what kind of help can be appropriate for a particular patient. When depression is diagnosed in women, attention is paid to the situation that might become its trigger. If a woman is a young mother, and some depressive symptoms emerge soon after childbirth, doctors propose PPD as the primary diagnosis. Despite people’s awareness of this disorder, many patients remain underdiagnosed and undertreated, provoking negative consequences for mothers and children (Kaufman et al., 2022).
Sometimes, it is enough for a woman to recognize a problem, talk to an expert, and get several behavioral recommendations. Family support and communication with friends may be helpful in managing negative emotions and finding answers (Manso-Córdoba et al., 2020). If more intense feelings and problems are observed, female patients need pharmacological interference. Therefore, many studies have been developed to identify and explain PPD signs and discuss existing treatment options.
Compared to MDD, PPD emerges mostly in women after having a baby. However, according to Langdon (2023), about 50% of men who have become young fathers and are in relationships with PPD-diagnosed partners may also develop depression symptoms. PPD is characterized by sadness, discomfort, and no interest in daily activities. CDC (2022) underlines the difference between PPD and “baby blues”: the latter describes worries and sadness after childbirth that usually disappear in a few days and do not need treatment, while the former lasts longer. Many clinical cases reveal the same symptoms of PPD, including poor sleep, low energy, and poor concentration (CDC, 2022; Yoon et al., 2022).
Women become irritable and cannot cope with their feelings of guilt or helplessness. As a result, increased cases of crying, unreasonable anger, and disconnection with the baby are observed, proving the importance of professional counseling and family attention. PPD needs time to be treated, and its main characteristic is its possible recession without treatment.
One of the most evident causes of PPD is childbirth, but the list of causes and risk factors of this mental health disorder is longer. CDC (2022) determines low social support, family history, age, previous delivery, and birth complications. Some mothers are encouraged to become stronger and more prepared to support their children who need additional care and medical treatment.
Still, Dubey et al. (2021) found out that health complications in the child provoke stress response in about 17%. The same study proves that younger mothers are exposed to depression more often: approximately 37% of mothers younger than 25 years compared to 23% of mothers aged between 26 and 29 (Dubey et al., 2021). Women who have been diagnosed with depression or have family members with the same mental health problems are at risk of developing PPD (Frieder et al., 2019). If young mothers become the victims of partner violence and physical or emotional isolation due to poor social support and the impossibility of coping with stressful life events alone, PPD risks increase (Ali et al., 2021). Each reason has its ground and is accepted by each patient differently.
In health care, PPD is considered one of the common childbirth complications that provoke negative feelings and consequences in mothers, children, and families. On a global scale, Frieder et al. (2019) state that PPD is diagnosed in 4 to 25% of mothers after delivery, depending on the country, its status, and care quality level. In the study by Yu et al. (2021), the findings include 15% of women diagnosed with PPD in one year.
Ali et al. (2021) share the opinion that 12% of women have PPD from a global perspective. Chow et al. (2021) reveal the highest rating (82%) of PPD in the USA and the lowest (1.9%) in Germany. In the United States, most scholars use the CDC reports to indicate the prevalence of this disease, which is about 11.5%, ranging from 8% to 24% (Frieder et al., 2019; Kaufman et al., 2022; Langdon, 2023; Manso-Córdoba et al., 2020). Thus, PPD diagnosis and treatment must be properly addressed to improve maternal mental health and predict physiological complications.
Early diagnosis helps healthcare providers predict the progress of complications in their patients. However, not many women are eager to visit a hospital or another care facility and report their emotional challenges and concerns. Thus, many scholars admit a high rate of underdiagnosed clinical cases and severe complications in some women (Frieder et al., 2019; Manso-Córdoba et al., 2020). When a woman addresses an expert to be checked for depressive symptoms, healthcare providers usually use communication, questionnaires, and DSM-5 criteria to identify the condition (Ali et al., 2021; Batt et al., 2020).
Attention is paid to female feelings and thoughts about the current state of affairs, short- and long-term goals, and attitudes toward the child and family in general. It is important to consider the duration and impact of mood, cognitive, and behavioral changes to distinguish between “baby blues” and PPD (Cornett et al., 2021). In most cases, PPD diagnosis does not take much time, and the evaluation of available treatment methods is required to understand what kind of help should be offered to a patient.
The choice of treatment for patients with PPD depends on the severity of the condition and the patient’s readiness to cooperate. In many cases, doctors recommend women get as much rest as possible and ask family members for help to divide new responsibilities, improve family dynamics, and promote child development (Cornett et al., 2021). Herbal remedies and physical exercises may be included in a treatment plan because of mothers’ positive attitudes toward these methods as natural help (Dennis et al., 2019).
Several types of physical therapies are available to patients with PPD today. For example, bright light therapy requires exposure to an intense fluorescent light box (usually about 30 minutes per day), and positive results (improved circadian rhythms and serotonin regulations) will be noticed in three weeks (Dennis et al., 2019). Yoga, acupuncture, and stimulations may be offered as a part of group therapy to help women find new friends with common childbirth-related concerns and obtain support.
If doctors see that lifestyle modifications are not effective and PPD symptoms do not disappear, they apply pharmacological interventions. Today, many studies contain information about novel medications and combinations with the help of which depression can be treated. For example, Cornett et al. (2021), Kaufman et al. (2022), Batt et al. (2020), Yoon et al. (2022), and Ali et al. (2021) agree that brexanolone is one of the most effective FDA-approved interventions. In most studies, the same dosing requirement is suggested: as an isotonic solution, allopregnanolone 5 mg/ml should be buffered in sulfobutyl ether-B-cyclodextrin 250 mg/ml and administrated over 60 hours (Cornett et al., 2021; Kaufman et al., 2022).
However, brexanolone is not the only medication to treat PPD. Doctors may prescribe different antidepressants, neuroactive steroids, serotonin modulators, progesterone hormones, and other allopregnanolone analogs like ganaxolone (Kaufman et al., 2022). Regardless of the chosen drug, mothers should understand that it would affect their babies during breastfeeding, and no independent decisions and choices are recommended without a doctor’s counseling.
There are also many positive attitudes toward CBT among women diagnosed with PPD. This approach focuses on examining human emotions and thought patterns to improve their acting and cooperation with other people. Instead of talking about current problems, concerns related to delivery, and postpartum changes, CBT therapists promote more realistic expectations, flexible patterns, and positive communication (Simhi et al., 2021). A healthcare expert helps a young mother recollect all the good memories about having a baby and reduce the number of stressors.
First, it is expected to understand what causes sadness, anger, or other depressive moods (Simhi et al., 2021). Second, education about treatment and the consequences of untreated depression are discussed. Finally, clients are encouraged to share their emotions and look at them not from a purely negative standpoint but reveal successes and positive achievements. Chow et al. (2021) use specific PPD scales to show that symptoms can be reduced if this intervention is regularly applied for several weeks. If the patient needs more time to manage her emotions, they can discuss additional therapies and options.
Finally, families and women after delivery with PPD symptoms should understand that poor treatments or insufficient attention to the current condition may be associated with some complications. The duration of untreated depression may be extended for months, and the number of complications will increase. Self-harm and child abuse are the risks to which depressed women are exposed (Cornett et al., 2021).
Suicide is a leading cause of maternal mortality during the first year after childbirth (Kaufman et al., 2022). Although infanticide is rare, PPD outcomes are hard to predict, and there are cases when mothers find murder as the only solution to the problem (Yoon et al., 2022). All these risks are highly recognizable and discussed to be predicted in society.
Still, PPD complications may not be related to life quality, namely unemployment or divorce (Ali et al., 2021). Women with a history of PPD cannot find good jobs because employees are not confident in their emotional balance. Husbands cannot deal with their wives’ or partners’ constantly changing behaviors or dissatisfaction with their lives. Some families ask for help, while others prefer to end their relationships.
In conclusion, current findings are necessary to understand the progress of PPD, its risk factors, and complications and summarize the most applicable treatment options. Although many women commonly experience depression after having a child, this condition is underdiagnosed and untreated. Some patients are afraid of how prescribed medications might affect their children during lactation, while some women do not get enough family support to recognize a problem. Thus, the role of healthcare providers in examining women after childbirth has to be underlined to provide professional care and medical help. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions are effective in stabilizing female behaviors and managing their negative emotion to prevent the development of severe complications and deaths.
Conclusion
Prevention and treatment of PPD have already become crucial topics for assessment in the American healthcare system and nursing education. Childbirth is usually associated with positive emotions and changes. However, when a woman gives birth to a baby, some complications and cognitive transformations remain poorly recognized, leading to the progress of serious mental health conditions. Thus, PPD is not always reported officially, and many women with depressive symptoms address a healthcare expert.
The findings show that families try to cope with sadness, exhaustion, and other negative situations independently. As a result, PPD is underdiagnosed and poorly treated at its early stage. This review proves that healthcare providers must understand their role in preventing PPD in women and increase the number of counseling sessions to talk to women and other family members. When PPD is proven, pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions have to be prescribed. The significance of this review is a thorough evaluation of PPD symptoms, risk factors, and complications.
A discussion of practical implications is necessary to ensure the population is well-informed about PPD diagnosis and treatment. Not only women but their partners may be exposed to depression after childbirth. Families need additional care and professional help to understand how to improve their relationships and predict child neglect or abuse.
Thus, non-pharmacological interventions like lifestyle changes, physical exercises, support groups, and counseling meetings can be offered to maintain emotional balance and positive behaviors. Pharmacological therapies like antidepressants and serotonin inhibitors positively affect female patients and predict risks to children during lactation. Many studies have been conducted to explain the worth of a novel FDA-approved drug, brexanolone. The combination of medications and communication is effective in treating PPD in women of any age.
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