Introduction
The functions of managers involve a number of very demanding tasks under a given organisational setting. The basic functions of these administrators include planning, organising, controlling, leading, and staffing as far as their business firm is concerned. In essence, managers are expected to make human resource more productive. Consequently, high quality goods, services, and technologies are made available to the consumers in the society.
According to Dasgupta, Suar, and Singh (2013), management is the ability of getting people to do things. The objective is achieved by directing the efforts of the managers and other people towards desired organisational goals. As a result, management professionals are required to have a number of core skills to get things done through others. Some of these skills include problem solving and communication.
In their writings, Mumford, Zaccaro, Connelly, and Marks (2000) define skills as a concept. According to Mumford et al. (2000), the concept refers to the ability to perform particular behavioural tasks or to undertake specified cognitive processes. The tasks and processes are functionally related to a given task. Mumford et al. (2000) categorise skills required to manage people into different clusters. The classifications include technical, conceptual, social, and administrative skills. In light of this, managerial skills are essential to the achievement of effective management.
As a result of their functions, managers determine the productivity or non-productivity of the employees. Their operations also influence the performance of the organisation as a whole. Based on their communication and problem solving skills, the management team directly influences the various aspects of employees’ performance.
The interests, attitudes, and aptitudes of members of staff are shaped by the activities of their superiors. In addition, level of commitment and behaviour change among employees can be influenced by the manager to benefit the organisation. As a result, organisations can overcome a number of challenges through combination of managerial skills, behaviour, and style.
The following study explores the concepts of communication and problem solving skills among managers in contemporary organisations. In addition, approaches to the development of these skills among the management team are analysed. The importance of these attributes to the organisation is reviewed.
Problem Solving Skills among Managers
According to Leslie (2004), managers spend a significant portion of their time in problem solving and decision-making processes. The two tasks are closely related. As a result of this relationship, a manager who is well equipped with problem solving skills is also competent in decision making.
Leslie (2004) further argues that activities related to problem solving and decision making are inherent to managers. In most cases, these professionals are expected to come up with solutions to various problems arising in the organisation. In addition, they are supposed to follow up on these solutions with decisions, even if doing so might be unpleasant.
Problem solving competencies fall under the category of conceptual skills. The reason is that these skills are involved in the formulation of ideas (Cancer & Mulej 2013). In fact, problem solving skills constitute a critical element in the creation of organisational vision and strategic plan. Lack of these capabilities, especially among the upper level management team, can jeopardise the operations of the organisation.
According to Mumford et al. (2000), problem solving skills refer to the manager’s ability to resolve new and unusual challenges facing the organisation. The skills also imply the capability of the management team to address undefined issues in the organisation. They require the managers to acknowledge their capabilities. Such an approach helps them to address the various challenges identified within the firm.
Problem-solving skills also include the ability of managers to recognise and define challenges or issues affecting the wellbeing of their firm. After identifying the problems, they are expected to formulate and implement solutions. The solutions are reviewed and monitored to keep track of the ensuing results. Cancer and Mulej (2013) postulate that processing of issues, group interaction, and cognitive skills are very critical in successful problem-solving.
McAuliffe (2005) holds the view that the ability of managers to formulate solutions plays a vital role in the problem solving process. In addition, managers need to consider other essential elements of an effective solution. The elements include the timeframe for solution formulation and implementation. They are also expected to take into consideration the dynamics of external issues (McAuliffe 2005). Other factors include organisational long-term and short-term goals, which may have an influence on the solution.
Mumford et al. (2000) are of the opinion that originality is the determinant of an effective problem-solving mechanism. The quality of the solutions is reviewed in relation to the problem. Effective problem-solving skills are made apparent through their uniqueness and the success of the solutions implemented.
One of the major qualities of problem-solving skills is the ability to think critically (Boulden 2002). Critical thinking in problem-solving reflects a well thought-out set of decisions. Such decisions generate strong remedies to organisational problems. In addition, critical thinking exhibits the ability to assess and rank the ability of the solutions in meeting organisational objectives.
There are several perspectives relating to problem-solving and associated skills. The perspectives provide a holistic approach to both aspects. Leslie (2004) highlights the viewpoint of cognitive processing. The viewpoint is associated with the theory of information processing. In essence, this theory explains how managers use their cognitive abilities to solve problems. The information processing theory is also in line with the problem-solving approach of critical thinking.
It is apparent that the cognitive theory is based on unique perceptions of the manager. It is also anchored on future expectations and previous experiences, if any. The theoretical framework is supported by other perspectives in relation to effective problem-solving and associated managerial skills (Boulden 2002). Some of these additional viewpoints include the goal setting, equity, and expectancy theories (Kent & Taylor 2002).
The goal setting theory functions as a mechanism for controlling and checking managerial behaviour. It is also used for motivational purposes (Kent &Taylor 2002). Managers may hone their problem-solving skills according to this theory as they strive to attain the organisational goals. However, in some instances, they may overestimate, underestimate, or even fail to quantify the goals.
The expectancy theory holds that managers enhance their problem solving skills by choosing amongst existing behaviours (Kent &Taylor 2002). The choices are made in anticipation of possible outcomes. They are also made through ‘placement’ of value or weighting likely events. The theory is useful in the establishment of performance criteria. In addition, it can be used in comparing levels of attainment and rewards allocation (Kent &Taylor 2002). In reality, however, the ability of managers to make rational decisions remains questionable.
Equity theory, on the other hand, postulates that comparative indices of inputs and outputs influence problem-solving and associated skills (Kent &Taylor 2002). Inputs include such factors as education, effort, experience, and skills. Outputs, on their part, include such elements as remuneration, salary increments, and other benefits. The outputs and inputs in this theory indicate inequalities. Such inequalities may influence managers’ problem solving skills.
The equity, expectancy, and goal setting theories fall under the cognitive theoretical framework. The reason is that they appeal to the reasoning aspect of managers as problem-solvers. Other perspectives, however, further elaborate on problem-solving skills among management professionals. Another common perspective is the individual traits approach.
According to Leslie (2004), traits are closely related to cognition. In addition, they are believed to influence individual performance in problem-solving. In this case, traits are considered as distinct individual characteristics. They are based on how the person acts, feels, and thinks. Theories on individual traits explain how personal behaviours influence individual reaction to specific events, such as problems.
Traits are grouped into a number of categories. The clusters include motive, ability, stylistic, and temperament traits (McKenna 1996). Motive traits are regarded as the ones that guide the behaviour of individuals. Ability characteristics, on their part, refer to the specific and general skills and capabilities of the individual. Stylistic traits are used in reference to behavioural style and gestures among individuals. The behaviours and gestures are not related to particular tasks in the achievement of goals. Some of the temperament traits include depression, optimism, and other energetic tendencies.
Combination or manipulation of individual traits can be used to enhance the problem-solving abilities of managers. The capabilities to address challenges can be approached from the individual traits perspective. However, this viewpoint is characterised by a number of shortcomings. For instance, the perspective is criticised for its over-simplification of human personality (Weihrich & Koontz 2005). In addition, the approach lacks in scientific rigour.
The other popular approach to problem-solving and related managerial skills is the organisational traits perspective (Kent &Taylor 2002). The approach explains problem-solving from the physical attributes of the organisation. It disregards the psychological determinants of an individual (Leslie 2004).
According to Leslie (2004), organisations are considered to possess procedures and structures that constrain and direct the problem-solving process. At the core of these procedures and processes is rationality. In this case, rationality is considered as an organisational attribute. It has the potential to free managers from routine and mundane tasks. Consequently, the managers would have time to concentrate on the more complex organisational issues.
A number of explanations have been provided by scholars in line with the organisational perspective to problem-solving and related managerial skills. The explanations have been developed combining the approach with psychological characteristics of employees and managers (Belton & Stewart 2002). According to Courtney (2001), this perspective postulates that management is charged with the responsibility of creating and guarding socio-technical systems. The systems enhance problem-solving in the firm. Managers achieve this by encouraging and embracing interpersonal behaviours within the organisation.
Communication Skills
A major assumption advanced in relation to managerial development is that most managers benefit from acquisition of certain skills, knowledge, and abilities. The assumption holds true for managerial communication skills. The capabilities usually enhance the contribution made by the professionals to the organisation with regards to the achievement of organisational goals.
The importance of communication skills in organisational management cannot be underestimated. According to Gray and Laidlaw (2004), effective communication constitutes the organisation’s nerve centre. Communication reinforces the vision of the entity. It also links employees to business, facilitates change, and fosters improvement in the entire firm.
Communication skills fall under the category of human capabilities (Connelly, Gilbert, Zaccaro, Threlfall, Marks & Mumford 2000). The reason is that communication process entails interacting effectively with other employees in the firm. Arredondo (2000) argues that the process of managing an organisation is fundamentally linked to communication. In addition, the nature of the responsibilities entrusted to the managers makes communication and management inseparable.
With the help of communications skills, managers are able to clarify the roles to be played by the subordinates, enhancing performance in the long term. Connelly et al. (2000) links managerial communication skills to performance. In addition, Arredondo (2000) argues that managerial communication enhances relationships and frames employees’ behaviours and attitudes in the workplace. Communication capabilities are an essential aspect of effective management.
According to Kent and Taylor (2002), communication can be understood as the process through which information is exchanged between two or more individuals. The aim of such exchanges is to motivate or influence behaviour. Consequently, managers exhibiting communication skills have the capability of influencing the behaviours of other people. To this end, communication enhances the fulfilment of some of the major functions of management.
Arredondo (2000) expounds further on these skills from the perspective of competency in communication. In this case, competency entails the level of communication skills a given individual exhibits or possesses (Kent &Taylor 2002). Consequently, a competent communicator usually manages encounters to achieve the desired results. Some of the common traits of a competent communicator include attentiveness, social relaxation, empathy, interaction management, and flexibility (Browne & Keeley 2006).
Some of the perspectives used to explain effective communication and related skills include the theory of social exchange (Dasgupta et al. 2013). As a conceptual paradigm, social exchange theory is one of the most influential perspectives. The theory advances that material and social resources constitute some of the fundamental forms of human interaction. Consequently, communication constitutes a very essential aspect of this interaction. It is also apparent from the theory that managers lacking in communication skills can rarely influence employees.
Organisational support theory exhibits the same viewpoint towards communication and related like social exchange theory. The organisational support theory states that managers’ are able to affect the employee’s behaviour, based on how they support their organisations. The support is, however, rooted in manager’s communication skills.
According to Dasgupta et al. (2013), employees develop a global perception regarding the extent to which organisations care for them. This conception is advanced according to the organisation support theory. In addition, managers are regarded as the organisation representatives. Consequently, if the employees perceive managers as supportive, they feel obliged to return the support (Browne & Keeley 2006). Such is the power of and significance of communication skills.
Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) propose training as a key element in the development of managerial communication skills. The training can be achieved either through leadership or management programs, instead of specifically focusing on communication programs. The proposition leads to the question of constituents of good or effective communication skills.
According to Browne and Keeley (2006), major communication skills necessary in managers include interpersonal behaviours, verbal fluency, writing, and reading abilities. Despite of all these factors being important, verbal communication are the key to managerial communication. In addition, training managers on the choice of communication channels can also enhance effectiveness greatly. Other aspects of communication skills development improvement include oral and written communication apprehension. In addition, media sensitivity also constitutes a significant measure of communication competence in managers.
Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) further postulate that manager’s communications skills are significantly associated with organisational performance. The poor performing managers’ exhibit difficulties in making themselves understood to employees. Consequently, communication skills hence limit their competence in other functions of management.
Three dominant types of communication styles exist, for which the managers should be enlightened and skilled on one. The styles include passive, assertive, and the aggressive communication styles (Belton & Stewart 2002). These styles form an integral indicator of managers’ communication skills and the effectiveness of the same in organisations.
According to Gray and Laidlaw (2004), passive communication style entails managers avoiding expressing their feelings and needs, and exhibiting shyness in protecting their rights. Aggressive communication style on the other hand involves managers’ expressing their needs and opinions openly (Gray & Laidlaw 2004). Aggressive communications style assumes the manner such that managers’ aggressiveness violates even the rights of employees.
Whereas the passive managers fail to express their message fully, causing delays and irritation, aggressive managers focus on their power and status over employees. Consequently, these two communication styles have similar outcome despite of differing skills therein. The ultimate outcome of the aggressive and passive communications styles is underperformance (Gray & Laidlaw 2004).
The assertive communication style lies between the two extremes of passive and aggressive. The assertive communication style involves behaviour in which managers are able to act in their best interest. In addition, managers do not deny the rights of others in the organisation, as evident from the other two styles (Arredondo 2000).
Aggressive communication style involves managers facilitating good interpersonal skills of interaction, characterised by objectivity, honesty, tolerance, self-expression, among others (Connelly et al. 2000). Openness, accuracy, and respect for others and self are also interpersonal skills evident in the assertive communication style. Assertive communication style can therefore be used for establishing mutual understanding, as well as fulfilment of organisational objectives.
In order to resolve the issue of communication skills, it would be appropriate for organisations to train managers on the various styles of communicating. Emphasis should however be made on application of assertive communication style. The assertive communication style apparently nurtures all the relevant skills essential for communicating effectively. In addition, the assertive style independent of individual traits, which might impede manager’s ability to communicate effectively.
Similarities and Differences between Guidelines Informing Past Practice and Recommendations from Literature Reviewed
Reviewed literature proposes various approaches to problem solving and communications skills enhancement in organisations. Among the key considerations in problem solving includes understanding the root problem requiring solutions. Among the issues in the guidelines is that of organisational procedures and processes.
The guidelines propose for the existing methods in the organisation such as those entailing control and supervision to be reviewed. Similarly, among the problem solving approaches proposed by the literature is that of ensuring rationality in organisational procedures and processes.
The guidelines do not propose effective communication as a means of resolving some of the problems in the organisation, but alteration of employees’ treatment. On the contrary, literature proposes assertive communication style to achieving organisational objectives. Not all employees’ requests apparently suit the organisational objectives. For instance, offering the employees more leaves and offs might lowering productivity.
It is therefore essential that assertive communication should be used to promote organisational objectives. In addition, care should be taken not to abuse the rights of the employees’, or those of the organisation. The managers should however stand firm in their decision, for the mutual benefit of all parties to the organisation.
Justification of Selected Guidelines for Practice in Problem Solving and Communication Skills
Various approaches have been proposed for problem-solving, and communication skills enhancement. Among the proposed approaches for problem-solving include the equity theory perspective, based on variation of inputs and outputs. Inputs have been marked to include experience, education, and effort, among others. Outputs on the other hand have been marked to include salary, and other benefits.
The problem solving theory is in line with the guideline of providing incentives to the employees such as leaves and off. However, the incentives should not impinge on the rights or objectives of the organisation.
In communication skills, the proposed approach involves introduction of assertive communication style and associated skills. The proposed guidelines on the other hand advocate for employees to be allowed unions. The proposed communication approach is in line with this guideline. However, it should be pointed out to the employees that they must respect organisational rights, despite of being granted theirs. Mutual relationship and understanding between the employees, managers, and the organisation at large would be achieved in this manner.
References
Arredondo, L 2000, Communicating effectively, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Belton, V & Stewart, T 2002, Multiple criteria decision analysis: an integrated approach, Kluwer, Boston.
Boulden, G 2002, Thinking creatively, Dorling Kindersley, London.
Browne, N & Keeley, S 2006, Asking the right questions: a guide to critical thinking, Prentice Hall, New York.
Cancer, V & Mulej, M 2013, ‘Multi-criteria decision making in creative problem solving’, Kybernetes, vol. 42 no. 1, pp. 67-81.
Connelly, M, Gilbert, J, Zaccaro, S, Threlfall, K, Marks, M, & Mumford, M. 2000. ‘Exploring the relationship of leadership skills and knowledge to leader performance’, Leadership Quarterly, vol. 11 no.1, pp. 65-86.
Courtney, F 2001, ‘Decision making and knowledge management in inquiring organisations: toward a new decision-making paradigm for DSS’, Decision Support Systems, vol. 31 no. 1, pp. 17-38.
Cropanzano, R & Mitchell, M 2005, ‘Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review’, Journal of Management, vol. 31 no. 6, pp. 874-900.
Dasgupta, S, Suar, D & Singh, S 2013, ‘Impact of managerial communication styles on employees’ attitudes and behaviours’, Employee Relations, vol. 35 no. 2, pp. 173-199.
Gray, J & Laidlaw, H 2004, ‘Improving the measurement of communication satisfaction’, Management Communication Quarterly, vol. 17 no. 3, pp. 425-448.
Kent, M & Taylor, M 2002, ‘Toward a dialogic theory of public relations’, Public Relations Review, vol. 28 no. 1, pp. 21-37.
Leslie, L 2004, Mass communication ethics: decision making in postmodern culture, Houghton Miffling College Division, London.
McAuliffe, T 2005, The 90% solution: a consistent approach to optimal business decisions, Authorhouse, Los Angeles.
Mumford, M, Zaccaro, S, Connelly, M, & Marks, M. 2000. ‘Leadership skills: conclusions and future directions’, Leadership Quarterly, vol. 11 no. 1, pp.155-170.
Weihrich, H & Koontz, H 2005, Management: a global perspective, McGraw-Hill, Singapore.