Introduction
Herbert Spencer was an influential academician and writer of the 19th century and specialized in many research fields, ranging from biology to philosophy. Nevertheless, Spencer is mainly known for his contribution to sociology, including the theory of social Darwinism and the perception of society as a social organism (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). He drew parallels between biology and sociology, explaining the similarities between the two directions of development (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). Herbert Spencer was also a conflicting figure who supported opposing social movements and political views at various stages of his life. Ultimately, the current essay examines Spencer’s social ontology and discusses the shift of his perspectives on culture and society throughout his life.
Spencer’s Biography and Social Ontology
Spencer’s social ontology should be discussed in the context of the philosopher’s upbringing and environment, as they fundamentally impacted his writing and perspectives. Spencer was born in 1820 in a relatively conservative religious family; however, the vast exposure to the Church had the opposite effect on the boy (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). From the earlier years, Spencer recognized the power of empirical knowledge and critical thinking as opposed to religious beliefs and highly praised his father for the rational approach to life. At the same time, experts argue that Spencer’s lack of spirituality disabled him from having a close relationship with his mother and significantly impacted his views on women’s role in society (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). As a result, Spencer’s social environment during his earlier years significantly affected his later works.
Spencer’s most influential writing revolved around evolution and its similarity to the development of social organisms. He advocated for the concepts of Lamarckism, “the dominance of emotion over intellect”, and “the correlation of individual makeup and societal form” (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998, p. 169). Consequently, he applied these ideas to society, creating the theory of Social Darwinism, which received significant academic and cultural attention at the time (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). As a result, Spencer made a notable contribution to sociology, philosophy, and other disciplines; however, he remained a contradicting figure due to the shift of his social ontology.
Social Ontology Shift
The introduction of Social Darwinism – a relatively neutral stance on societal development – changed Spencer’s social ontology. By 1854, Spencer was a progressive scientist who advocated for equality, women’s suffrage, and other values of a democratic civilization (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). However, the similarities between evolution and society led Spencer to believe that males have become a dominant species and women are “intellectually inferior” (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998, p. 174). Some experts further emphasize the lack of Spencer’s emotional relationships with other people in his gradual transition to pessimistic and depressive views of society. He was never married, had few friends, and his closest people died before him, which certainly affected his mental health and political affiliation in later life.
Spencer’s social ontology shift also concerned his perspectives on political regimes. He drew a distinct line between intelligent and “primitive” societies, believing in the superiority of the former (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). This distinction also regarded the differences between the working class and educated citizens, and Spencer utilized the comparison to evolution to explain the contrasts (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). Therefore, despite Spencer’s multiple notable contributions to sociology and philosophy before 1860, he is frequently remembered as one of the pioneers of scientific racism. For these reasons, some experts criticize Spencer, whose ideas were virtually the same as the views of Nazi Germany and other political regimes who perceived racial superiority as one of their primary principles.
Perspectives on Culture and Gender Roles
As mentioned briefly before, the social ontology shift affected Spencer’s perception of women’s role in society. Namely, he believed that women are physically, intellectually, and emotionally inferior to men due to their biological role as mothers (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). Spencer argued that, unlike boys, girls start accumulating the necessary energy for giving birth since early years, which slows down their mental development (Ashley & Orenstein, 1998). As a result of the shift, he abandoned his previous feminist beliefs about equality and became an advocator of conservative households. He also supported the policies of limited education and restricted human rights since it would be a wasteful usage of resources due to their intellectual inferiority. Naturally, since 1860, the perspectives of women’s emotional and intellectual inferiority have been scientifically disproven. However, Herbert Spencer remained an advocator of racial and gender superiority until his ultimate demise, which was a striking contrast to his academic works during his early years.
Conclusion
Herbert Spencer was a highly influential academician who contributed to a large variety of research fields and was one of the most popular writers of the 20th century. Nevertheless, Spencer’s initial progressive works in sociology with the emphasis on utilitarianism were darkened by his later books on racial and gender superiority. He supported his position by drawing parallels to evolutional mechanisms and ultimately believed that males were always the dominant species, and some societies were inherently better than others. As a result, this social ontology shift from progressive to conservative views significantly affected his later works from 1860 until his demise in 1903.
Reference
Ashley, D., & Orenstein, D. M. (1998). Sociological theory: Classical statements. Allyn and Bacon.