Abstract
Totalitarianism can be detrimental to social and economic growth. The current research was conducted to achieve two main objectives. The first purpose of the research was to identify the problems associated with technology in the context of totalitarianism. Additionally, the research helped in identifying possible recommendations to counter totalitarianism at the global level.
The current research draws on recently published journal articles to argue that technology has become a significant tool for totalitarian governments worldwide. The critical literature review was the major means of investigation to answer the research question. It was established that technology plays an important role in advancing totalitarianism. Therefore, it is recommended that civic education and global cooperation be encouraged to counter the authoritarian governments in the 21st century.
Introduction
Technological advancements have revolutionized the governance and political systems of various countries. Totalitarianism is a form of governance that is detrimental to citizens’ enjoyment of natural rights and other freedoms. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy are some of the 20th-century totalitarian regimes that infringed on the rights of dissent. Unlike in the 20th century, the 21st century is associated with improved technologies that have exacerbated authoritarian regimes. Although limited resources constrained the old 20th-century totalitarian governments, recent technological advancements may facilitate the resurgence and transformation of dictatorial regimes through control and digital surveillance.
Totalitarianism
History and Origins
The term totalitarianism is multifaceted because it carries different connotations among philosophers and political thinkers. The origin of the word is associated with the writings of Giovanni Amendola, who formulated it in 1923 (Perona, 2021). According to him, Italian fascism was a political system with total power but different from conventional dictatorships (Perona, 2021).
Later, the term was adopted by Giovanni Gentile, one of Italy’s most prominent philosophers. Contrary to Giovanni Amendola’s ideology, Giovanni Gentile described totalitarianism as a form of governance in which the state ideology has influence, if not power, over the majority of its citizens (Perona, 2021). From the foregoing, the term totalitarianism has both positive and negative connotations.
Although there seems to be confusion about whether totalitarianism is a form of dictatorship or not, the majority of political figures associate it with absolute power. For instance, Winston Churchill, in his 5 October 1938 speech before the House of Commons, used the term to refer to Nazi Germany (Danby, 2024). Additionally, renowned authors and researchers such as George Orwell have associated the term with dictatorship. Furthermore, Hannah Arendt, in her book The Origins of Totalitarianism, describes Nazism and Stalinism as the major totalitarian political movements of the 20th century. Unlike other forms of governance, the latter is associated with limited freedoms and privileges for the citizens.
Characteristics
While different historical totalitarian regimes adopted different approaches, they shared common features that distinguished them from conventional dictatorships. Firstly, the regimes are characterized by a centralized authority (Danby, 2024). The latter has absolute control over all aspects of society, including politics and the economy.
Secondly, totalitarian regimes are characterized by ideological control, in which a particular set of beliefs is propagated to justify the state’s absolute control (Perona, 2021). State-controlled media, education, and propaganda are common means of disseminating ideology to citizens. Consequently, there is increased fear among the citizens under a totalitarian political system.
Thirdly, the regime employs extensive surveillance and policing mechanisms to facilitate easy monitoring and control of the population. While in the past spies were used, in contemporary society, advanced digital surveillance systems are used (Cunliffe, 2021). For instance, trackers and other forms of digital control are applied.
Lastly, suppression of dissent is common among totalitarian regimes, making it difficult for the opposition to fulfill its political mandate. In some cases, trumped-up charges, intimidation, and to some extent violence are used to suppress dissent (Basu, 2023). Therefore, in a typical totalitarian government, there is limited individual freedom, which may further lead to social anarchy.
The Old Totalitarianism
Case Study: Nazi Germany and East Germany’s Stasi
Totalitarianism was common during the 20th century and was resource-intensive. Germany was among the many countries under the control of dictators and governments with absolute political power (Stasavage, 2020). Between 1933 and 1945, Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party took control of the country and merged the powers of the chancellery and presidency (Perona, 2021).
The latter was exacerbated in 1934, when a referendum confirmed Adolf Hitler as the sole Führer, centralizing power in his person and making his words final (Danby, 2024). Similar to other totalitarian regimes, Nazi Germany was associated with racism, anti-Semitism, and Nazi eugenics as the central political ideologies. Although totalitarian governments have control over citizens, maintaining the status quo can be resource-intensive.
Although Adolf Hitler’s totalitarianism came to an end in 1945, state control was still exercised in Germany. To maintain absolute control, the German government at the time used the Ministry for State Security, or the Stasi. The latter conducted clandestine operations and espionage through subordinate intelligence services (Stasavage, 2020).
Like other dictatorial institutions, the Stasi had spies in major industrial plants and apartments. The spies provided the German government with information, including details of the dissenters’ plans and other sensitive information (Bowring, 2019). While the Stasi made it difficult for Germans to enjoy their freedoms and personal rights, its operations came to an end in 1990. Therefore, the old totalitarian regimes faced some problems that made it difficult for them to exercise absolute political power.
Resource Burden of the Regimes
Maintaining political power and control by the old 20th-century totalitarian governments was resource-consuming. Unlike the contemporary regimes, the old 20th-century ones utilized diverse forms of surveillance and monitoring. First, the regimes extensively used propaganda to influence the public (Perona, 2021).
Producing government-approved information through newspapers, mainstream media, and other public communication channels required significant resources. Second, the governments deployed large-scale surveillance operations that required sufficient financial and human resources (Bowring, 2019). For instance, the East German Stasi had an extensive network of informants and spies, which was expensive (Danby, 2024). Propaganda and extensive surveillance operations were costly to the old 20th-century totalitarian governments.
Third, the censorship and information control mechanisms they applied were resource- and time-consuming. Dissenting opinions, which could be expressed on public forums and the mainstream media, were subjected to censorship (Cunliffe, 2021). A typical process would involve monitoring and controlling the press, and eventually publishing government-approved information.
The process was resource-intensive, as it required recruiting professionals to assist with it (Perona, 2021). Lastly, governments often resorted to extreme political repression and purge measures (Königs, 2022). Activities such as mass arrests, gulags or labor camps, show trials, and executions were expensive. Therefore, the governance approaches adopted by the old 20th-century totalitarians required enormous costs, leading to their failure.
The Technological Revolution and Its Impact on Governance
Overview of Technological Advancements
Compared to the 20th century, the 21st century is a period marked by major technological advancements. The latter has given dictators more power and control over the citizens. The first major advancement in the 21st century is the Internet and communication technology.
The use of networks for information sharing dates back to 1983, when the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network first shared its resources via a computer network. The Internet, urther, evolved communication technology by enabling the development of websites and social media platforms, among other systems used to disseminate information (Perona, 2021). Therefore, the 21st-century totalitarian regimes have better ways of sharing information than the 20th-century regimes.
The second major technological advancement is the development of surveillance technology. In the 21st century, there has been a significant shift from simple to advanced, complex monitoring systems. Telephone wiretapping, the use of Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV), and computer databases were common in the late 20th century (Meierhenrich, 2021). However, in the 21st century, more advanced systems such as drones and aerial surveillance, facial recognition and biometrics, and social media monitoring, among others, have been adopted by totalitarian governments (Danby, 2024). Consequently, personal information and movements of the citizens can be easily monitored by the dictatorial regimes of the century.
Data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) are other technological advancements that have led to major shifts between the 20th and 21st centuries. According to Stasavage (2020), data analytics involves collecting, organizing, and analyzing data using advanced systems to generate insights. On the other hand, AI involves advanced systems capable of mimicking human behavior (Meierhenrich, 2021). Consequently, the majority of tasks performed by humans are being taken over by AI systems (Zuiderwijk et al., 2021). Therefore, 21st-century totalitarian governments have used advanced technology to spread their ideologies and further exercise absolute political power.
Benefits for Totalitarian Governments
Advancements in technology benefit totalitarian governments in various ways. The improved security systems have led to enhanced security and law enforcement capabilities (Perona, 2021). While in the old 20th century, military capabilities such as spying, surveillance, and dangerous zones were carried out by men, in the 21st century, technology has overtaken the old 20th-century methods (Cunliffe, 2021). Consequently, there is increased use of advanced military and security systems that allow totalitarian governments to maintain law and order without needing intensive human resources. Through the latter, it has become difficult for the dissents to express themselves without being noticed.
Apart from enhanced security and law enforcement capabilities, the advanced technology has led to improved public services and administration. Althunibat et al. (2021) conducted a systematic literature review of the factors influencing the adoption of e-government services. According to the researchers, e-government services include obtaining public documents, paying taxes, and obtaining government licenses, among others. Their results show that service efficiency and increased government revenue collection are the key drivers of e-government adoption. Therefore, many totalitarian regimes have adopted e-government systems for easy revenue collection and the provision of public services to citizens.
Potential for Abuse by the Totalitarian Governments
Although advanced technologies offer governments an opportunity to improve the delivery of public services, they can also be abused. Erosion of privacy is a major concern in the 21st-century use of technology. Some systems gather data that can be sensitive and private to individuals (Lubrano, 2021).
Such data and information can be made public, violating the right to privacy (Desmet, 2022). Additionally, there are increasing cases of system hacking in which unauthorized individuals gain access to computer networks with malicious intent (Stasavage, 2020). Totalitarian governments can use such capabilities for their benefit.
Another area of potential technological abuse is the use of advanced surveillance systems to monitor people. Unlike in the past when spies were used, modern technological systems can monitor movements, health, and financial transactions, among other private information (Kurochkina et al., 2021). The use of smartphone tracking systems and illegal network penetration are among the approaches governments use. While such actions may be intended to protect society, they pose a danger to individuals and those affected (Cunliffe, 2021). Increased fear and anxiety due to the surveillance can be associated with psychological problems among the victims.
Furthermore, the advanced technology makes it easy for totalitarians to manipulate and control information. As previously discussed, one of the key characteristics of a totalitarian regime is information control and its manipulation (Meierhenrich, 2021). Unlike in the past, when information manipulation was a time-consuming task, in the 21st century, advanced, intelligent AI systems automatically filter out what the government needs to hide from citizens. This has been achieved by setting up legal frameworks for the use of social media and other mainstream media (Lubrano, 2021). In many cases, media houses and those who share information are subjected to intense scrutiny before their news is released to the public.
New Era of Totalitarian Dictatorships and the 21st Century Technology
Use of Technology to Promote Totalitarianism
While resources limited the old 20th-century totalitarian regimes, modern technology has drastically shifted authoritarianism in ways unimaginable before. The central aim of technological advancement is to ensure continuous development, but modern totalitarian regimes have used it to their advantage (Cunliffe, 2021). Through modern technology, dictators have consolidated power and gained extensive control over dissent and citizens (Stasavage, 2020). Consequently, it has become difficult to counter the authoritative and manipulative administration in contemporary society (Desmet, 2022). Various factors have led to a more dictatorial totalitarian regime in modern society than in the past.
Mass Data Collection and Monitoring
One way technology makes it easier for totalitarian governments is by allowing them to collect mass data and monitor dissent. In modern society, data is becoming a crucial tool for surveillance. Established dictatorial systems collect data from each individual, which can be used to know their standing and opinions about the government (Meierhenrich, 2021). Moreover, tax data collection through advanced systems enables regimes to obtain financial information about their citizens, and at times, they manipulate this information to the detriment of dissenting individuals. Therefore, mass data collection and monitoring, as enabled by digital transformation, have given authoritative dictators an upper hand.
Facial Recognition and Biometric Data
In the old 20th-century regimes, it was difficult for spies to identify dissidents physically. However, in the 21st century, intelligent systems make it easy, eliminating the need for human spies (Stasavage, 2020). The systems are fed sufficient data about an unknown person, and they can identify their face or biometric data (Danby, 2024).
Consequently, it has become easier for dictators to identify individuals in opposition. Additionally, facial recognition and biometric data collected can be manipulated to the detriment of dissenters (Cunliffe, 2021). The collected data is often used to detain the opposition on trumped-up charges and further propagate misinformation.
Information Control and Propaganda
In contemporary society, communication can be done through various platforms accessible to the public. Social media platforms such as X and Facebook are becoming crucial tools for dictators to spread their ideological propaganda and misinformation (Kurochkina et al., 2021). The regimes have enacted stricter laws and regulations that allow them to monitor any data and information shared on it. Any information that contradicts the regime’s ideology is often censored, and the communicator may be punished. For instance, China, North Korea, and Iran restrict internet access to encumber the spread of information that threatens the ruling political parties.
Apart from controlling the use of social media platforms, modern totalitarian regimes use them for propaganda. Given their financial muscle and political power, dictatorial governments often sponsor public social media campaigns to legitimize their rule and actions (Kurochkina et al., 2021). Moreover, the regimes can seek the services of influential social media personalities, who may help in spreading misleading information. Such actions can lead to political anarchy where the citizens are unable to distinguish between good leaders and dictators. Therefore, society is entering into a new era of authoritative totalitarian regimes where the natural human rights of the citizens and the dissents are disrespected.
Case Study of North Korea
North Korea is among the many countries that are under totalitarian regimes, interfering with civil rights and political expression. The country is led by Kim Jong-un, who is recognized as the country’s supreme leader (Lubrano, 2021). The president has been North Korea’s leader since 2011 following his father’s death (Cunliffe, 2021).
Similar to other contemporary dictatorial regimes, the North Korean government is sensitive to aspects of its citizens’ data (Meierhenrich, 2021). In response to controlling internet access, the government has developed an intranet system called Kwangmyong (Lubrano, 2021). The intranet allows North Korean residents to access only government-approved content. Therefore, it is easy for Kim Jong-un, as the supreme leader, to misinform the public and allow them only to hear information that praises the regime.
In addition to limited internet access, the North Korean government has utilized other aggressive tactics to overpower opposition. In particular, foreign websites and social media platforms are inaccessible to only a few elite citizens. This allows them to filter out foreign information they believe could be harmful to their regime and totalitarian approach (Lubrano, 2021). Consequently, the North Koreans are isolated from the outside world, making it difficult for them to oppose the dictatorship of Kim Jong-un (Meierhenrich, 2021). Digital transformation misuse is detrimental to the enjoyment of civil rights in North Korea.
The Future Trajectory of Totalitarianism and Global Governance
Political philosophers and social scientists have explored the future of totalitarianism amid the technological revolution. According to Taylor (2023), totalitarianism may become an existential threat to humanity in two major ways. One such way is by exacerbating a Great Power Conflict, which involves the most powerful countries (Kurochkina et al., 2021). For instance, the differences in political ideologies between Western and some Asian countries can breed political anarchy. The latter is because some countries control global social media platforms that they can manipulate to their advantage.
The second way through which totalitarianism can become an existential future problem to humanity is by increasing vulnerability to other risks, such as racism and climate change. The latter is exacerbated by the totalitarian state’s inability to collaborate with the global community to achieve uniform economic growth and development (Cunliffe, 2021).
For instance, totalitarian governments such as that of North Korea have invested in nuclear weapons, which pose major risks to humanity (Meierhenrich, 2021). Although the regimes cite self-defense as the rationale for venturing into such risky and threatening weapons, their need to influence global politics is a major contributing factor (Lubrano, 2021). Therefore, the continued misuse of power by totalitarian governments poses a risk to human survival.
Technological transformations are making major shifts that could make dictatorship even easier. Recent advancements in AI technology have led to further improvements in surveillance systems, information control, and other mechanisms through which authoritarian governments can misuse the internet (Meierhenrich, 2021). For instance, many governments are investing in e-government systems that will enable them to exercise greater control over their citizens (Lubrano, 2021). Although the advancements are meant to improve service delivery, they pose major risks to the enjoyment of fundamental human rights (Zuiderwijk et al., 2021). Therefore, there is a need to develop an approach that would discourage future dictatorships.
Recommendations to Counter Totalitarianism
Countering totalitarianism in the context of technological advancement can be achieved through various mechanisms. Strengthening international cooperation through multilateralism, support for international law, and economic leverage can be beneficial (Königs, 2022). The use of trade agreements and other international law instruments can effectively pressure totalitarian governments. For instance, imposing trade embargoes on governments that misuse technology to manipulate the public and suppress dissent can be helpful (Kurochkina et al., 2021). Similarly, the establishment of institutions that promote peace, security, and global cooperation will counter the manipulative regimes.
Additionally, the advanced technology needs to be leveraged for the public good. International communities can encourage the development of systems that promote human rights, counter misinformation, and ensure secure communication, which can be crucial (Lubrano, 2021). Widespread adoption of encrypted communication tools and systems would deter the dictatorial regimes from accessing personal information and any other sensitive data (Kurochkina et al., 2021). Furthermore, fostering resilient democracies through civic education and promoting accountability and transparency is central to ending totalitarianism in the context of digital transformation. Adopting the highlighted recommendations will be a hallmark of bringing an end to the possibility of future totalitarianism.
Conclusion
While in the 20th century, human resources were crucial to dictators, in the 21st century, technology has become a useful tool for them. Advanced technological systems in surveillance, data analysis, and social media allow modern-day totalitarians to have absolute control. North Korea is an example of a dictatorial governments that misuse technology to manipulate the public further. The prospect of further advancements is likely to exacerbate the situation. Therefore, there is a need to promote international collaboration, fostering accountability and transparency, and leveraging technology for the public good to counter totalitarianism.
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