Introduction
Spiritual beliefs are a common way to seek peace of mind and alleviation of the burden they carry. Various religions attempt to put the notion of evil into their defined worldviews by ensuring that their followers can comprehend the deific will to serve as a force for good and punish others’ misdeeds. In fact, evil is one of the most controversial topics in religious studies, as the connection between the divine and reality motivates believers to remain faithful (Rouzati, 2018, p. 1). The desire of humankind to explain moral and ethical aspects of people’s lives led to numerous definitions of evil and ways to reconcile with it. This paper will review Chapter 8 of Gary Kessler’s book and analyze the notion of evil proposed by the author.
The Nature and Implications of Evil
Evil is an inescapable part of many people’s lives that seems to be illogical to exist. This imperfection in the otherwise peaceful existence often refers to acts that bring “intense, pointless suffering” (Kessler, 2006, p. 182). Its lack of explainability is the reason behind many attempts to determine its position in spiritual and philosophical worldviews. Evil may stem from individuals or nature, and these origins create various connotations for believers. Judging by this trail of thoughts, evil lies in the conception of many major religions as people seek ways to comprehend the reality around them.
Each religion has to deal with the existence of evil and provide a reasonable explanation for this phenomenon. Different accounts of the origin of evil range from an individual’s decisions to the influence of supernatural beings. However, most belief systems strive to portray this notion as an act against God and his will (Kessler, 2006, p. 191). This approach puts evil outside the sphere of influence of deities considered good.
At the same time, many religions consider the presence of evil as a necessity that provides an obstacle to overcome (Rouzati, 2018, p. 3). Such a statement creates a strong negative portrayal of harmful acts and ushers people to prevent their occurrence. Some religions even argue that the nature of evil is to direct humanity toward the most “optimal pattern of human flourishing” under the presence of free will (Coley, 2021, p. 5). Therefore, the inescapability of evil has led to the implications of its crucial place in faith-related topics.
Pointless suffering can undermine spiritual beliefs through continuous exposure to adverse conditions. Monotheistic religions are prone to this notion due to the perceived incompatibility of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient entity with evil (Kessler, 2006, p. 194). Without the ability to prevent evil, individuals may lose faith in the all-powerful aspect of the deific beings they worship. Some philosophers even consider that “the existence of evil is the best argument against the existence of God” (Kessler, 2006, p. 195). By this logic, the diminishing influence of the Church can be attributed to the historical events of the previous century.
Theodicies
Another critical concept reviewed within the chapter is the religious explanation of retribution against evil or reconciliation with its existence. Theodicy is a notion that an almighty and all-good deity does not guarantee the complete removal of evil from the world and “restores nomos,” which is a level of comprehensibility of the world itself (Kessler, 2006, p. 183). It can be viewed as an external factor that supports humanity’s existing moral norms and values. Without such a concept, reality would appear to have no proper path to salvation, and the lack of coping mechanisms against its harsh truth could make people’s lives unbearable (Kenney, 2018, p. 89). Therefore, the promise of potential retribution for evil deeds and the reward for being exposed to them are key factors that motivate people to live their lives through difficult times.
Different religions and philosophical movements rely on various theodicies to support their claims. The terms ‘karma’ and ‘karmic justice’ are well-known worldwide, as belief systems such as Buddhism and Hinduism employ this concept to explain unnecessary suffering as an outcome of past actions (Kessler, 2006, p. 189). At the same time, the presence of karma would also prove the existence of a soul that is reborn, as people may be punished seemingly without reason for misdeeds in their previous lives. Such a strategy is more grounded in reality and is based on a person’s actions, putting the blame on the living instead of the superficial.
Another type of theodicy stems from a different source of a promise to punish the unjust. Eschatological theodicies envision a future reign of good over either the living, the dead, or both. The idea of an eventual defeat of evil or escape from it gives believers hope in their faith and encourages them to comprehend the impermanence of their current situation. To alleviate the impact of evil events on people’s belief systems, religions may invoke a promise of the final judgment.
Islam, Christianity, and Mahayana Buddhism proclaim that the post-death assessment will take its place and every person’s act will be weighed for its moral value (Kessler, 2006, p. 191). This vision ensures that people act in the best of everyone’s interests to avoid causing unnecessary harm that would later cause them to be condemned. The concept of Hell is commonly utilized by religions with eschatological theodicies that give a physical or conditional representation of a punishment that will follow one’s “separation from God” (Kessler, 2006, p. 191). While this may look like a scare tactic, eschatological theodicy is a path to cope with the frustrating reality.
Theodicy of participation is reconciliation with the necessity to live through evil acts. It is a different strategy that is often employed by both religions and philosophies. People from cultures with strong social connections can view their suffering as a way to prevent further harm done to their relatives, friends, or community members (Kessler, 2006, p. 193). While this approach may seem to encourage masochistic tendencies, it is a common path toward convincing others of the necessity of their actions that may bring them harm. Chinese religions and Australian Aboriginal tribes refer to this strategy in their frameworks (Kessler, 2006, p. 192). The greater good is often promised to occur in the future as the outcome of their current pains.
Finally, the dualistic view on deific beings is also employed as a way to reconcile with evil. As God created all good in the world and strives to uphold this state, Satan is “a force responsible for evil” that is yet to be defeated (Kessler, 2006, p. 194). While this approach emphasizes that external influence is present, its lack of boundaries may put the notion of God’s omnipotence into question. Therefore, Satan may be portrayed as an equally powerful entity that is to be blamed for suffering, providing an opportunity for believers to direct their frustration.
Moreover, religious and moral boundaries often serve as a deterrent for believers to avoid performing evil acts. Moral commitments required by different spiritual frameworks often create a clear direction on how to avoid evil and follow the word of God (Kessler, 2006, p. 209). Theological dogmas may simultaneously condemn evil acts and serve as tools for assessment of what defines good. Under this scope of the study, it may be possible to state that “God allows some evil to occur so that humans can engage in soul-building” (Reichenbach, 2022, p. 3). Without evil, people would lack a starting point that could help them realize the benefits of following a moral way of living.
Conclusion
In conclusion, evil is an act of inflicting senseless harm that religions attempt to put into their philosophical framework and make sense of to alleviate people’s suffering. Reconciling with this phenomenon is a challenging process that requires mental resilience that can be supplemented with spiritual beliefs. Evil is an inevitable part of people’s lives and dramatically affects the well-being of entire nations. Therefore, religions had to establish a deterrent that would guide believers’ decisions away from evil deeds.
By its definition, evil is irrational, which makes people seek superficial explanations behind its existence and invent preventive mechanisms against its occurrence. Theodicies play a vital role in helping people to live in a world where evil is inescapable. Through various promises of retribution or reward for living through suffering and not causing it upon others, religions define natural evil and contain moral evil within society.
Works Cited
Coley, Scott M. 2021. “The Problem of Evil, Skeptical Theism and Moral Epistemology.” Religions 12, no. 5: 313. Web.
Kenney, John. 2018. On God, the Soul, Evil and the Rise of Christianity. Bloomsbury Academic.
Kessler, Gary E. 2006. Studying Religion: An Introduction Through Cases. 2nd ed. Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education.
Reichenbach, Bruce R. 2022. “God, Evil, and Meticulous Providence.” Religions 13, no. 10: 899. Web.
Rouzati, Nasrin. 2018. “Evil and Human Suffering in Islamic Thought — Towards a Mystical Theodicy.” Religions 9, no. 2: 47. Web.