The American Civil War is considered to have ended when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his last troops at Appomattox Court House in Virginia in 1865. This is deemed common knowledge; however, it seems that not enough attention is paid to the times that followed immediately after, the tumultuous era of Reconstruction. Guelzo believes that it is unfortunate, because if there is one historical period that had a profound impact on the way American society is today, it is Reconstruction (12). The issues that concern the politics of the United States today – the interrelation between economic and political democracy, the relative power of the national government and the state governments, people’s access to citizenship and their right to vote – all started being addressed in this era. Therefore, one might say that the foundations on which modern America is built were born during the remarkable period that was Reconstruction.
Generally, Reconstruction is believed to last from 1865 to 1877; during this time, the Constitution and the laws were altered to ensure the fundamental rights to former slaves, and biracial governments took command. However, Guelzo believes that, in fact, Reconstruction began as early as in December 1863, with Abraham Lincoln’s announcement of a plan to establish the Union-loyal Southern governments (87). While being an advocate for the abolition of slavery, the President did not seem to be particularly concerned about rights of emancipated blacks. Still, Lincoln’s mindset, albeit slowly, was changing: closer to the end of his life, he recognized the need for black suffrage in post-war South, if limited. He deemed most worthy the ‘intelligent’ people – that is, pre-war free blacks – and those serving as soldier on the Union’s side.
Unfortunately, Lincoln did not live to see his aspirations come to life. His successor, Andrew Johnson, created new Southern governments, which followed the direction opposite to Lincoln’s. The adoption of the Black Codes, severely restricting the rights of newly-freed Black people, provoked fierce protests, and convinced Northmen of the White South’s desire to basically reestablish slavery. This was followed by a significant political confrontation between Johnson and Congress’s Republican majority (Guelzo 95). Even though Johnson vetoed it, Congress still passed one of the most impactful laws in the history of the country, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which still exists. In accordance with it, all people born in the United States were considered its citizens, irrespective of race (at the time, with the exception of Indians, still viewed as tribal sovereignties’ members). This principle, one of citizenship by birth, hardly exists anywhere else today and is constantly challenged in the country’s modern politics, as it applies to illegal immigrants’ children born in America.
Following that, Congress included citizenship by birth and equality under the law in the Constitution through the 14th Amendment. Guelzo notes that, in the last few decades, this amendment has been used by the courts to extend the legal rights of vulnerable populations – most recently, homosexual people (101). Guelzo cites a felicitous quote stating that the 14th Amendment turned the Constitution from one for white men to one for humanity (102). In addition to that, it became a mark of a remarkable change in the balance of power at the federal level, giving the national government the authority to protect citizens’ rights violated by the states.
A year after the passing of the Civil Rights Act, Congress enacted the Reconstruction Acts, again vetoed by Johnson. These led to the creation of new Southern governments, allowed black male Southerners to vote, and temporarily prevented some of the leading Confederates from doing the same. Not long after that, the 15th Amendment expanded the suffrage of black males to the entire nation. Guelzo states that the Reconstruction Acts marked the beginning of a period of so-called Radical Reconstruction. This was a time when a black community, politically mobilized and supported by its white allies, made the Republican Party a powerful entity in the South (111). For the first time in American history, black people voted en masse and assumed public office at all levels of government. It was an unprecedented attempt to build a biracial democracy on the land that had just become free from slavery. Granted, the fight for racial equality still continues today, and it is far from being won – but this is what prompted it to begin and gave it a strong impetus.
Eventually, Reconstruction failed, and its governments started falling one after another. Guelzo believes that it was mainly due to the South’s fierce resistance to new policies, enhanced by the North’s retreat from equality ideals (123). The controversial presidential election of 1876 saw a Republican Rutherford B. Hayes elected for the Office. He abandoned the nation’s further efforts to secure black people’s rights, and the era was over.
It had been many years before the country returned to its former fight for equal rights and freedoms. However, when it did, it was on the basis of the 14th and 15th Amendments, which remained in full force. Moreover, the current notions of democracy, citizenship, and rights are all founded on the concepts that were born during Reconstruction. Perhaps, a more thorough analysis of this historical era and its causes and effects will help Americans better understand what kind of society they want their country to be.
Work Cited
Guelzo, Allen C. Reconstruction: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2020.
Guelzo, Allen C. Reconstruction: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2020.