Film studies became an essential way of rethinking feminist theory in the late 1960s. Earlier film studies developed within the framework of cultural studies. The latter made its intellectual debut in the early 1960s with the founding of the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies in Birmingham. Feminism is the most prominent movement in film criticism today (Mayne, 1985). Culture as representation is a crucial topic of feminist debate precisely because power relations related to pornography, abortion, male violence, technology, and science are increasingly visible today. Feminist theory, which has paid much attention to the analysis of mass culture, directly links it to the social context of the era (Ferguson, 2017). At the same time, these studies reflect the development of the theory of feminism itself and the emergence of such a significant field of modern cultural studies as gender studies. In these analyses, the problems of mass culture are given a crucial place.
The gender structure of film production is expressed in specific positions, tasks, experiences, values, rewards, and evaluations of women filmmakers and can be examined at micro and macro levels. The question of whether and how this structure affects the process of coding gender has at one time boiled down to some ambiguous questions. In particular, researchers wondered whether an increase in the number of female directors or producers, camerapersons, screenwriters, and editors would lead to better film content (Yang et al., 2020). This simplistic framing of the question ignored the specifics of film production organization, the broader social context and assumed a universalist interpretation of gender. Another popular question was about the relationship between feminism and the representation of women in films. The analytical problems that the study of representations of social inequality addresses are, first, determining who is tolerated and relegated to the margins or beyond social acceptability (Murphy, 2015). Second, the question of how representations frame gender, race, and other social differences, how boundaries are delineated, and how groups are compared and characterized in relation to one another.
Cinema as a social institution encompasses a set of diverse social roles, including viewer and director, critic and producer, actor and screenwriter, and the administration of a television channel, movie theater, or video recording studio. The socio-cultural context of film consumption practices is primary gender-specific. Representations of visual culture influence social patterns by guiding everyday social practices and thereby construct gender relations, sexuality, and the subjects of sexuality (Kolodii et al., 2016). Semiotics is very popular in contemporary feminist film criticism because it allows us to discover structures of meaning, rather than being limited to noting the presence or absence of women in cultural representations. Peirce (1965) and de Saussure (1974) laid the foundations of semiotics, and beginning with the works of R. Barthes (1964), semiology became a popular method of studying various forms and artifacts of popular culture. This science explores how meaning is created rather than what it consists of. The paper’s thesis is that despite the evolution of images and ideas used in cinema, existing gender narratives in Palestinian films often correspond to patriarchal notions of the position of men and women in society.
The goal of political linguistics is to explore the various relationships between the political state of society, the subjects of political activity, communication, thought, and language. In modern linguistics, political linguistics is considered one of the most developing areas. Discourse from the standpoint of sociolinguistics is the communication of people (Livramento et al., 2014). It is regarded as from the perspective of their belonging to a particular social group or concerning a specific typical speech behavioral situation. At the present stage, there are tendencies to strengthen the connection between political and linguistic phenomena and a deeper specialization of the theories of political discourse. The political situation in the country will largely determine what kind of content the culture will have (Wandel, 2001). Feature films, especially documentaries, are produced under the direct influence of events in a particular country. Characters in films must discuss issues relevant to the time of movie-making, in case credibility is essential to the filmmaker. Therefore, the images of the characters created will also be filled with certain specific characteristics conditioned by the political state of society.
Today in high-budget cinema, heroes do not smoke or do it quite rarely. And this is not due to a drastic change in social preferences but is also the result of production optimization and a focus on high profitability. In a situation of increasing economic risk, the influence on film production of the demand-forming audience itself is growing. The time-tested, high-budget franchises make substantial profits while exploring discursive areas is fraught with possible losses for competing majors. The pragmatics of mass cinema is built on the desire to create the conditions of audience game. And the point of this game is so that viewers would be getting assured enjoyment.
Language is an ordered communicative system serving to transfer information. From the definition of this term as a communicative system comes the characteristic of its social function. Language provides the exchange, storage, and accumulation of information in the collective, which uses it. Indication of the iconic nature of language defines it as a semiotic system (Silverman, 1983). To carry out its communicative function, language must have a system of signs (Kull, 1999). A sign is a materially expressed replacement of objects, phenomena, concepts in the process of information exchange in the collective. In fact, languages are not so much a transmission mechanism of information as a phenomenon of people’s consciousness – the space in which information is born, transmitted, and perceived. If the human body belongs to the physical world, it “lives” in language as a thinking subject. Like linguistics, semiotics is confronted with the fact that languages, being the subject of scientific attention, are at the same time the environment of the existence of researchers themselves. That is, they cannot be outside the person who studies them.
The main feature of a sign is the ability to realize the function of substitution. By combining symbolic and verbal semiotic systems, the sender of the message acts within a vocabulary of film meanings, the interpretation of which follows the individual perception of the recipient (Matus, 2018). In contemporary filmmaking, the pictorial elements take the leading position, while the non-imaginative elements are subordinate (Lamm, 2018). Authors’ aesthetic value and skill are measured by their ability to find signs with an unexpected analogy within the boundaries of commonly known film meanings so that the actualized signified remains understandable.
In the semiotic structure of the cinematic frame, the human being occupies an extraordinary place. Historically, cinema art was created at the crossroads of two traditions. One of them dates back to the tradition of nonfiction footage, the other to the theater. Although the viewer saw a living human being in front of him in both cases, both traditions approached him from entirely different angles. Moreover, they implied a different type of audience orientation. In the nonfiction footage, the degree of reality of the person and the things around them is the same (Godmilow & Shapiro, 1997). This leads to a kind of equating of the human being with the other objects of photography. In cinema art, man’s appearance on the screen created a new situation in terms of semiotics. It was not a mechanical development of already existing tendencies but the production of a new language. Dyer (1982) and Jhally (1990) suggested the use of semiotics as a science capable of explaining how meaning-making occurs in an accessible and logical way. An analysis of films at the symbolic level allows us to identify recurrent and transmitted ideas and images characteristic of Pakistani visual art.
Some feminist studies accuse cinema of maintaining stereotypes of gender roles, suggesting that its sexist content influences audiences. Many critics say that films, television programs, and pornographic media, in particular, encourage men to engage in aggressive and violent acts against women (Felson, 1996; Huesmann & Taylor, 2006). Others use the logic of psychoanalysis and ideological theory, arguing that movies and media promote a dominant ideology in society and wide acceptance of it (Gitlin, 1979). In a typical research project, these arguments will be complemented by textual analysis of gender roles, the sexist construction of femininity, theoretical assumptions about audience response, and viewers’ interpretation of the text.
The psychoanalytic approach in feminist film criticism is called screen theory. Its essence is that the narrative and the symbolic problem of establishing the differences between the sexes seems to be the primary driving force of classical Hollywood cinema (Chapman, 1996). In this approach, the key terms are scopophilia and narcissistic identification. Scopophilia implies the satisfaction of the sexual instinct by watching, which is what happens during the movie (Jangir, 2017). In addition, the film is designed for the audience to identify with particular characters and their logic. Feminist film criticism questions what the choice of identity models is and what underlies this choice.
Revealing the mechanisms of influence on the audience, discovering the manipulative potential of film production is one of the critical tasks of modern film criticism. However, it is worth noting that the issues of male and female pleasure, the problem of spectacle, and the audience are discussed not only within the framework of a psychoanalytic approach. There are several studies devoted to how narrative and visual media allow for different readings of texts (Magliano et al., 2013). The differences and the very fact of these interpretations depend on the specific characteristics and contexts in question rather than the psychoanalytic drama embedded in the text.
Feminism is characterized by a critical attitude toward both popular culture itself and research in this field from the perspective of dominant patriarchal attitudes. According to feminist theorists, academic research, like popular culture itself, excludes, ignores, or trivializes women as a social category. The attitudes toward women created in popular culture and the media can be termed the symbolic destruction of women (Gouma-Peterson & Mathews, 1987). Moreover, sexist representations of women reinforce the prevailing gender division of labor and orthodox concepts of femininity and masculinity. The symbolic destruction of women affirms their fate and role as wives and mothers in a patriarchal society. The components of modern patriarchal culture include gender dualism, a focus on men, their exclusive decision-making, and their occupation of most positions of power. Such elements often pass into the film industry, as the social milieu of society largely determines the content of films.
The plight of women in Muslim countries, questions of women’s emancipation and morality are also reflected in documentaries and feature movies. Moreover, many women began to show interest in filmmaking and tried to work as filmmakers. In this regard, several women’s film festivals were created; moreover, women filmmakers have achieved a great deal, especially in the field of documentary filmmaking (Jankovich, 2014). However, in visual culture and the media, stereotypes about the role of women in society are often maintained. They are shown as the keepers of the hearth, finding happiness solely in creating a family and household; they are given a secondary role.
Understanding the processes occurring in cinema only acquires objective significance when it is based on a specific historical approach. This approach requires remembering that the place that cinema occupies in the culture of a particular country depends on the historical conditions in which it is located. The complexity of these conditions includes, of course, national peculiarities, ethnic traditions that determine the mentality of a given people (Hamer et al., 2020). However, the forms of social behavior in which mentality is realized are determined by the economic and political situation. The latter is prevailing at a particular stage of the historical life of the people.
Modern cinematography is a variety of genres and subjects. During its short existence in historical time – since the beginning of the 19th century – cinematography has been growing and developing in different countries. The “moving images” era without the plot was replaced by silent, black and white cinema, then sound and color were added. A new round of scientific and technological progress has brought cinema to the level of computer graphics, expanding filming possibilities. Having entered the international arena, cinematography remains national; the audience is almost always easy to identify which country the film was made in. The success of different countries in this field, however, is uneven.
When considering both the national characteristics of the Palestinian people and the historical situation in which they find themselves, it is necessary to examine the unique moments that are characteristic only of this nation. But people should also consider what brings it closer to the fate of other peoples who find themselves in similar historical circumstances. For the history of cinema in Palestine, it is crucial to remember that it emerged when this country, like several other countries on the Asian-African continent, was under colonial dependence. The Palestinian issue is increasingly highlighted in the media every year, and the ranks of defenders of Palestinian national identity, Arabs, and sympathizers of the Muslim world are growing.
In the colonial countries, the distribution and production of films were first taken over by foreigners and not by the local population. But over time, Palestinian filmmakers began to appear and made attempts to create their own films. The main themes, of course, were the problems of the Palestinian people, environmental issues, and armed conflicts. The formation of Palestinian cinema was spontaneous, as independent filmmakers had to face several difficulties to convey their message to the audience. Only in recent years has the feminist agenda been sharpened, with female protagonists playing a much more important role than before. But it is worth noting that the level of Palestinian filmmaking, including documentary filmmaking, is rapidly progressing. This is evidenced by the participation of directors in various film festivals, not only domestic but also large-scale ones.
Although Israel worked on the Judaization of Palestinian heritage in a political rather than religious sense, Palestinian voices have been growing louder in cinemas since the late 1960s. Hollywood world cinema set out to promote colonialism, and Palestinian films began to play the role of a mouthpiece of the armed resistance. However, in recent years, many feature films and documentaries have appeared that adequately show the Palestinian problem (Hudson, 2017). They use specific technical means that allow them to appeal to international public opinion and win international prizes. Several times Palestine has presented its films at the Cannes Film Festival and even at the Oscars.
Palestine is a de jure only partially recognized state in the process of creation and, to put it mildly, in a problematic relationship with the state of Israel. Palestinian filmmakers tend to make films in co-production – with the United States, France, Germany, and Israel: almost all major Israeli filmmakers are left-wing politicians. They support Palestinian independence and behave as absolute dissidents in relation to the policies of their government. The financial support of other countries does not cancel the phenomenon of Palestinian cinema: it occupies an important place on the world film map.
3000 Nights is a heartbreaking film, even by the emotional standards of acute Palestinian cinema. It’s a drama about a young Palestinian teacher who is imprisoned on trumped-up charges. The film depicts the horrors of prison life as political prisoners subjected to the legalized violence of guards and the lawless violence of Israeli criminal sitters. But female director Masri strives to see the light even in a dystopian nightmare. She makes the heroine a mother, daring to give birth and raise her child in prison. Although this film deals with the theme of motherhood, which is quite typical when a woman becomes the heroine of a movie, one can still conclude that the heroine is not a stereotypical character.
She is strong in spirit and is able to cope with bullying and violence, all the while being in a highly hostile environment that is prison. In addition to the main character, there are many women in the film, just as courageous as Layla, ready to change their lives radically if the situation demands it. In her semantic sense, Layla is a female fighter while retaining traditionally feminine traits of character. In creating this character, the director balanced between the two facets, which may have been dictated by circumventing censorship bans on the portrayal of women.
The film Divine Intervention, which won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, also has a feminist message. Because of the political situation, freedom of movement for the woman ends at the Israeli army checkpoint between the two cities. Unable to cross the line, the lovers find a place in the deserted parking lot just outside the checkpoint. But the lovers cannot free themselves from their surroundings, and they cannot maintain their intimacy in the face of the siege. The director of the film shows the audience how much the military events in the country prevent women from existing freely. Their constitutional rights of movement are restricted, as are their personal rights to love and family.
The importance of freedom of choice and the possibility of deciding one’s own fate is presented to viewers in Rana’s Wedding. It is a romantic drama about a Palestinian girl who is obliged by her unyielding father to choose a husband from a pre-approved list of suitable men. But Rana, overcoming her fears and doubts, runs away from her parents’ house searching for a groom of her own taste. This film was able to present the Palestinian-Israeli conflict exceptionally and compellingly. Rana’s Wedding uses romance and dark comedy genres, showing viewers through the couple’s drama a vivid image of the Palestinians’ daily struggle for the right to live freely.
Hany Abu-Assad shocked international cinematography with Omar, which also received wide acclaim. In this film, Abu-Assad talks about Palestinian agents collaborating with the occupation authorities. Omar is a love story and refutes the reasons for young Palestinians to have intercourse with their enemy. The director based his film on a true story, demonstrating the accepted Israeli methods of recruiting Arabs. They are designed to put pressure on the victim to create discord in his life, which leads to social destruction. There are few female characters in the film; they play a secondary role as the love interest of the male protagonists. Moreover, their dialogues are mostly just about love and family. Thus, the main character’s girlfriend acts more as a muse than as a full-fledged free individual. Her presence in the film symbolizes passion and affection but in no way actualizes the feminist agenda. As an archetype, she can be defined as “James Bond’s girlfriend,” she is beautiful, she is in love with the protagonist, and that is where her key characteristics end.
The Palestinian film The Reports on Sarah and Saleem by Mouayad Alayan was presented at the 47th International Rotterdam Festival. Its characters are Sarah, a Jewish cafe owner in Jerusalem, wife of a career Israeli army officer, and Saleem, a married Palestinian struggling to make ends meet and a part-time food delivery man in Bethlehem. The adultery that took place becomes known to the intelligence services and Sara and Salim, accused of espionage, become victims of propaganda manipulation by both sides. The only hope, which glimmers in the final film, is in the solidarity of women who can understand each other even in this dead-end situation.
Although Palestinian cinema is considered rather modest, it deals with very sensitive subjects, something not every European filmmaker can afford. Women filmmakers emphasize in their films that it is impossible to generalize a private problem to the level of a national one (Jankovic, 2014). Hence, the story of an individual or a single family occupies a special place in their work. Compared to the confrontation that confronts the population, the filmmakers try to soften the conflict because the situation is extremely heated and bloody. They try to change it into humanitarian interaction and dialogue.
Women filmmakers have struggled for recognition for years, using various methods of self-promotion, using modern media and institutions to assert their voice and auteur position in filmmaking. They used different venues to maintain their rights in the mainstream, art cinema, experimental cinema, art house, traditionally dominated by men. They caused real media scandals which exploded the festival world and changed the cultural politics of festivals in many different countries. Women filmmakers grow stronger with each new film, establishing their names in the global film context as the film succeeds in the international festival circuit and sometimes breaking through to international distribution.
Currently, in the Gaza Strip, all film projects must be approved by the Hamas Ministry of Culture before being shown to the public. Independent filmmakers claim that the Ministry of Culture takes harsh measures against content that does not comply with the Palestinian Islamist movement’s decrees. In 2010, for example, Hamas banned the short film Something Sweet directed by Khalil al-Mazzayin, which was presented at the Cannes Film Festival (al-Mughrabi, 2011). Hamas banned the local screening of the film because of a four-second scene showing a woman with uncovered hair. In 2011, the Center for Women in Gaza hosted a film festival featuring documentaries and fiction on women’s issues, but the Ministry of Culture banned many scenes.
Banning films containing references to extremist organizations or drug propaganda deprives viewers of the ability to decide what to watch and puts them at risk of banning completely harmless films. Any instrument of censorship quickly becomes uncontrollable; in addition, the notion of censorship is subjective and evaluative. Today, filmmakers face the problem of funding constraints when the project is viewed unfavorably. This, in turn, significantly reduces access to cinemas for independent movies, including those with a contemporary view of the role of women. Prohibitions in the entertainment industry, for example, prevent certain undesirable topics and ideas from seeping into the country. However, at the same time, they can negatively affect the development of some promising regions of the country’s economy. This includes the film industry, which generates significant revenues for the state budget, offers the population quality leisure time, and creates additional jobs.
In general, it can be argued that, at present, the patriarchal narrative view remains dominant in contemporary Palestinian films. The feminist agenda is weak, and women are presented more as victims of circumstances than as individuals capable of changing their own fate. In addition, in terms of semiotics, female characters are more symbols than protagonists, more shadows than full-fledged actors. This is most likely due to the political situation in the country and the history of cinematography in Palestine. More specifically, it is about making films under impossible conditions: constant wars, the imposition of censorship bans, and the lack of funding.
If the authorities’ pressure on filmmaking is less intense, people should expect a breakthrough from contemporary women filmmakers of Palestinian origin. However, the very fact that they are women does not guarantee that there will be a feminist agenda in their work that the public can understand. In the course of the study, it became apparent that few studies are similar in topic and content, which explains the relevance of this work. More research on the role of semiotics in shaping feminist discourse in films in other countries may emerge in the future.
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