Trauma and Emotions
Finding the connection between emotional health and physical well-being is a promising field of research because the topic touches on different medical disciplines and approaches. From a clinical perspective, Garland (2018) describes trauma as a wound caused by tissue damage and accompanied by rupture of the skin or other visible injuries. At the same time, the author offers an interpretation of trauma from the perspective of psychology and describes traumatic events as factors that do not directly harm the body but negatively affect the emotional state (Garland, 2018). Magruder et al. (2017) complement this statement by noting that “exposure to trauma is pervasive in societies worldwide,” which makes the problem global and explains the high research interest in this issue (p. 1375338). Identifying negative emotions timely is a prerequisite for effective trauma management.
This qualitative study will use semi-structured interviews as the main data collection tools aimed at revealing the impacts of mind on the body. In addition, by analyzing the responses received and categorizing them on individual topics, the issues of anxiety and other psycho-emotional disorders will be reviewed. Assessing research backgrounds over the years can help identify underlying trends that have shaped contemporary views of trauma and its relationship to emotions and effects on the body. Through this analysis, this is important to answer the following question: How do people understand this relationship from the perspective of personal experience? Assessing the extent to which such a relationship has become an ideology can help identify general and individual patterns of perception and prove the concept of the direct influence of emotions on the body.
Development of Trauma Research over the Years
Trauma research has a rich basis, and over the years, various scholars have advanced theories and hypotheses about the principles of trauma impacts and their proper management. When discussing earlier studies of the late 20th century, one can mention the work by Erikson (1991) who defines trauma and emphasizes its characteristic features, particularly physiological manifestations and consequences caused by injuries. The author also discusses post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a health problem and notes the prevalence of this issue in individual communities, with an emphasis on combat veterans (Erikson, 1991). A slightly later study by van der Kolk (1996) also touches on PTSD, and the author notes the relationship between traumatic experiences and alterations in brain structure. The focus of both studies is on memories as key factors prompting the experience of negative emotions and an unstable psyche.
Earlier research focuses primarily on the physical manifestations of trauma without an emphasis on the psychological aspects of development. For instance, in the study by Rank (1929), the author examines the manifestations of childhood trauma. At the dawn of the 20th century, psychoanalysis had not yet received its proper development, and any form of neurotic behavior was considered a consequence of a limited number of factors. In his research, Rank (1929) considers infantile anxiety, sublimation, adaptation, and other cognitive aspects of development and often cites childhood trauma as the cause of possible deviations. However, there are no specific concepts reflecting the totality of signs and factors, which makes such research theoretically limited and insufficiently credible, particularly in the context of modern findings in this area.
In the 21st century, the psychological aspects of trauma began to be studied in more detail, and this line of analysis became widespread in various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and other humanities. Jones and Wessely (2006) make a historical assessment of the phenomenon of psychological trauma and confirm that until the 1970s, any responsibility for the experience and consequences of stress lay with the individual. In other words, the idea that co-factors could be the causes of psychological trauma was not accepted or considered. The researchers note that the first preconditions for studying PTSD and similar diagnoses began in the second half of the 20th century and developed in the 1980s in response to the experiences of Vietnam veterans (Jones & Wessely, 2006). In this regard, all the findings regarding the relationship between trauma and psychology are relatively recent because earlier, trauma was defined solely as physical damage and not mental.
Even later, in the 2010s, the study of the relationship between trauma and consciousness became widespread and was a promising industry for analysis due to a wide range of theories and hypotheses. Alexander (2013) offers extensive work in which the aspect of trauma is viewed from the perspective of social theory and assessed as a phenomenon that cannot be denied for a number of reasons. Historical background, conceptual frameworks, such as contemporary universalism and moral restrictions, and other factors are described as real causes of trauma (Alexander, 2013). The focus on this issue as a global problem allows asserting the acceptance of the idea of the connection between trauma and human psychology. As a result, research on trauma began to include cognitive manifestations in the relatively recent past because previously, in the academic environment, there was no parallel between mind and negative experiences, or the parallel was insignificant. However, in modern research, these issues have begun to be studied in more detail, and many scholarly works are aimed at exploring these relationships and their premises.
Development of Trauma Research in the Current Literature
While comparing early research on trauma with contemporary studies, one can note that in recent years, this issue has been increasingly addressed. Moreover, active attention has come to be given to the psychological manifestations of negative experiences in the past, and appropriate interventions are being considered to address the problem. For instance, Hemmila and Jakubus (2017) consider quality improvement initiatives associated with targeted work in this area. The authors note that to offer potentially effective solutions to deal with the consequences of traumatic experiences, a number of variables should be considered, particularly mortality and morbidity rates, as well as relevant statistics (Hemmila & Jakubus, 2017). These statistics, in turn, may include “knowledge, attitudes, practice, competence, and perceived barriers” that healthcare providers have identified during their analyses (Bruce et al., 2018, p. 131). This means that today, special forms of care are being organized, and providers’ knowledge in this area has expanded to carry out appropriate interventions timely and competently. As a result, the intellectual base has grown, and all care and support programs have sufficient resources to offer targeted patients interaction through effective care practices and approaches to trauma management.
Another evidence that today, trauma is actively researched is the categorization of this topic according to social factors affecting different communities. For instance, Williams et al. (2018) emphasize racial trauma and provide a special scale that reflects the degree of discrimination and its consequences. Specific manifestations of social bias based on ethnicity, manifested in the perception of others as enemies, alienation, and other factors of intolerance, are the consequences of this type of trauma (Williams et al., 2018). However, this line of studies concerns, as a rule, adults, while the analysis of childhood trauma and its preconditions also occupies a separate niche in the research field. Terrasi and De Galarce (2017) consider the problem in the context of schooling and argue that stressful conditions in children are more dangerous than those in adults. One of the main reasons is the possible consequences and effects on “physical, social, emotional, and academic development” and manifestations of traumatic experiences in the future (Terrasi & De Galarce, 2017, p. 36). Children, being a vulnerable population, do not have a stable psyche and the necessary resilience to stress, which, ultimately, can cause severe mental issues.
Individual categories of the population exposed to traumatic experiences build up a vast research background. However, in addition to patient assessment, some scholars consider the impacts of stress management on healthcare providers themselves (van der Merwe & Hunt, 2019). Today, when trauma and its psychological effects are familiar to many, professionals working in this field can also be exposed to negative influences caused by frequent interactions with target patients and manifested in the form of secondary stress. Specialized mitigation practices, such as supervision and training, are seen as approaches to avoid the development of dangerous disorders in providers (van der Merwe & Hunt, 2019). This problem is relevant due to the increasing number of cases of public appeals and, consequently, poses a threat to physicians who may face compassion fatigue and burnout.
However, the topic of collective trauma, as one of the negative social phenomena, is a more common research area than work on individual cases. Aydin (2017) argues that to better understand personal stress drivers and traumatic experiences, this is crucial to study the concept of trauma collectively by finding commonalities and highlighting similar manifestations. In other words, despite the individual nature of stressors, adaptation to different negative emotions often takes place in the same form, for example, in the form of depressive moods. Moreover, according to Hirschberger (2018), even the concept of the memory of generations exists when the negative experience of past years forms the basis of the social worldview and is transmitted through the years. Such results complicate specialists’ activities to help people and require a deep analysis of the prerequisites and factors that entailed the rooting of specific ideas in the mass consciousness. For instance, the experience of past wars shows that many people express similar views on traumatic events (Hirschberger, 2018). As a result, the study of such a topic affects society globally and proves the acuteness of targeted work in this direction.
When considering collective trauma and research in this sphere, this is essential to mention the negative experiences associated with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Massive social isolation correlates with depressive moods directly and induces anxiety and persistent stress in people (Silver, 2020). Despite its nature, the coronavirus infection that affects citizens physically around the world has become associated with chronic stress. People are tired of constant health concerns and, at the same time, forced to adapt to new conditions of social interaction (Silver, 2020) Masiero et al. (2020) highlight the significant impact of the pandemic on different communities, including both ordinary citizens and medical professionals, and note the existence of collective trauma. Therefore, judging by the reviewed academic sources, one can note that the focus from physical trauma has partially shifted towards research on negative effects on the psyche. Thus, the modern theoretical background in this area is much richer than a few decades ago.
The Relationship Between Trauma and Anxiety
Current Research of Anxiety
Anxiety is a psycho-emotional disorder associated with nervous tension, which makes life difficult due to constant stress. In modern literature, this condition is often considered along with traumatic experiences and assessed as a consequence of experienced negative emotions. Lopatkova et al. (2018) draw a relationship between personal anxiety and PTSD and note the pathological conditions that develop in people as a result of stressful experiences. Moreover, according to the authors, from a gender perspective, the occurrence of such a relationship in men and women is approximately equal (Lopatkova et al., 2018). At the same time, with regard to anxiety itself as an emotional disorder, according to Li and Graham (2017), women are more vulnerable to this problem due to different hormones. The biological aspects of physical development are different for the two sexes, and the psycho-emotional states of women are less stable due to these differences (Li & Graham, 2017). Therefore, the gender factor is essential to consider when researching anxiety and its prevalence in society.
Recently, many studies have researched anxiety against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on people’s psyche globally. Marvaldi et al. (2021) analyze the degree of impact of the coronavirus infection on the mental state and note that mass social isolation and restrictive measures introduced by the authorities correlate positively with moderate and severe forms of anxiety in people. Faced with the pandemic, citizens of different countries are forced to adapt to new living conditions, and constant health threats entail stress and anxiety. At the same time, the assessment of this topic in the academic environment concerns not only negative emotional states caused by the risk of illness and death. Mann et al. (2020) propose the concept of economic anxiety and note that this issue is often no less acute than emotional depression. Loss of jobs, lack of stable income, significant spending on medicines, and other consequences of the COVID-19 crisis are alarming, and, as Mann et al. (2020) state, the problem is more acute among young adults than the elderly. Thus, anxiety research in recent studies addresses various aspects and causes of its development.
One of the frequent topics that researchers study from different perspectives is the direct relationship between anxiety and the body. Janjetic et al. (2019) review this correlation and cite an example of eating disorders and, consequently, problems with being overweight due to anxiety. The authors note that anxiety can manifest itself in different ways in people, but a common feature is the manifestation of addictions as manifestations of emotional distress, for instance, overeating (Janjetic et al., 2019). Therefore, the direct relationship between anxiety and the body is scientifically proven and explains how much people’s emotions determines their physical health indicators.
Trauma and Anxiety
While assessing the current studies on the relationship between trauma and anxiety, one can highlight the most frequent research areas. For instance, one common problem is childhood trauma (CT) and its manifestation in adult life in the form of anxiety. Chatziioannidis et al. (2019) focus on this topic and note “that individuals with severe CT and increased attachment anxiety represent a risk population warranting early clinical attention” (p. 223). Huh et al. (2017) confirm these findings and argue that the lack of necessary adaptive practices offered to children is fraught with severe forms of anxiety and depression in the future. An unformed child’s psyche is exposed to risks due to experienced stress, and accumulated traumatic experiences may cause psycho-emotional disorders, which explains the relevance of taking effective mitigation measures timely. Otherwise, this will be more difficult to address anxiety in adulthood due to ingrained behavioral patterns and the lack of knowledge about how to manage an individual emotional state.
In general, the relationship between trauma and anxiety is often studied in the context of the family. Rahnama et al. (2017) argue that family caregivers should pay particular attention to relevant problem-solving strategies when facing childhood trauma and interact with parents constantly to offer efficient approaches, for instance, emotion-focused practices. Some studies, for instance, the work by Qeshta et al. (2019), consider the consequences of war trauma. The authors cite a direct relationship between the negative experience of participation in hostilities and subsequent anxiety states along with depression and PTSD (Qeshta et al., 2019). Therefore, trauma refers to anxiety and is a proven risk factor for the development of psycho-emotional disorders.
Relationship Between the Body and Mind
Finding the link between mental and physical health is the subject of numerous studies using different criteria for analysis and comparison. For instance, Bawaskar and Shinde (2019) note a direct connection between the state of the body and the mind and argue that the suppression of negative emotions, instead of effectively managing them, is associated with the development of physical pathologies along with psychological disorders. By using the example of patients with diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis, the authors show that at least a quarter of these people have emotional problems that, in turn, exacerbate physical health (Bawaskar & Shinde, 2019). Patiño-Lakatos (2019) highlights the mind-body relationship and analyzes the interactions of physical and psychic consequences of trauma from the standpoint of bodily memory. This means that any negative experience from the past, be it a serious physical injury or minor damage, leaves its mark on a person’s later life. As a result, the mind-body relationship largely depends on the past but not the present in view of the concept of bodily memory, which means the preservation of stable patterns of perception.
The mental manifestations of the negative experiences of trauma are reflected in the development of specific mental health issues. The frequency of depressive disorders is reviewed by Brunet et al. (2017) from the perspective of such a factor as self-esteem. The ability to monitor an individual condition and assess opportunities to improve well-being adequately is an important aspect in overcoming health problems (Brunet et al., 2017). Weak self-esteem, for instance, body-related shame, is a driver of the development of depression and anxiety and interferes with a healthy lifestyle, thereby affecting the emotional state negatively.
With regard to the relationship between childhood trauma and health, a number of studies describe the proven effects of negative childhood experiences and their manifestations in adulthood. Cloitre et al. (2019) argue that, based on the information obtained from their research participants, adverse childhood experiences are associated with negative physical outcomes that people have to deal with in adult life. Improving emotion regulation should be part of targeted work with children to prevent the development of severe disorders in the future and eliminate adverse psychological symptoms timely. As evidence of the effects of emotions on physical health, Smith et al. (2021) cite the experience of parents vaccinating their children. According to the researchers, fear of a dangerous illness can be a motivating factor in driving decisions to vaccinate, and despite parental concerns, the child is safer in case adequate preventive measures are taken (Smith et al., 2021). Accordingly, even from this perspective, psychological criteria can influence physical health, and negative emotions, such as fear, do not always correlate with the deterioration of well-being but, conversely, can stimulate the adoption of adequate decisions to protect children.
While existing in society, a person forms communication patterns based on emotional stimuli, and these stimuli are often health markers. Haase et al. (2016) examine the relationship between spouses in families and note a positive correlation between manifestations of anger and an increase in the number of cardiovascular diseases. Establishing positive communication that excludes negative emotions reduces the risk of these diseases, as evidenced by the connection between the body and the mind. Older adults are particularly susceptible to negative health outcomes since, based on the results of the study by Kunzmann et al. (2019), adverse emotions at this stage of life affect different body systems and weaken the immune system due to nervous stresses and constant worries. The severity of physical illnesses can be determined by the volume of negative experiences and traumatic events (Kunzmann et al., 2019). As a result, to improve health indicators, one of the aspects to take into account is the emotional state. The social factor also needs to be considered to identify the appropriate behavioral drivers and influence them through productive mitigation practices, for instance, consultations with psychologists or self-education.
The impact of negative emotions on the health of employees themselves is also common. By interacting with difficult cases regularly, nurses and physicians can perform poorly due to burnout and stress. Nevertheless, Kożusznik et al. (2017) argue that, in addition to emotional issues, physical problems arise, for instance, headaches due to noise, eye pain due to working under artificial light, or weakness due to lack of sleep. Impaired alertness and lower psychomotor vigilance are also the consequences of tedious work (Kożusznik et al., 2017). Levenson (2019), in turn, considers the relationship between negative emotions and physical health from the perspective of various factors, including age and social communication. The researcher emphasizes that people with confirmed diagnoses related to physical health tend to report stronger effects of negative emotions than those without severe illnesses (Levenson, 2019). This is crucial to maintain control over the psychological state to prevent nervous breakdowns and related health issues. As a result, the relationship between the body and the mind is proven, and emotional well-being is essential to overcome various physical health problems.
References
Alexander, J. C. (2013). Trauma: A social theory. John Wiley & Sons.
Aydin, C. (2017). How to forget the unforgettable? On collective trauma, cultural identity, and mnemotechnologies. Identity, 17(3), 125-137. Web.
Bawaskar, R. S., & Shinde, V. H. (2019). Effect of suppressed emotions on health – Homoeopathic aspect. Homœopathic Links, 32(03), 141-144. Web.
Bruce, M. M., Kassam-Adams, N., Rogers, M., Anderson, K. M., Sluys, K. P., & Richmond, T. S. (2018). Trauma providers’ knowledge, views and practice of trauma-informed care. Journal of Trauma Nursing: The Official Journal of the Society of Trauma Nurses, 25(2), 131-138. Web.
Brunet, J., Pila, E., Solomon-Krakus, S., Sabiston, C. M., & O’Loughlin, J. (2017). Self-esteem moderates the associations between body-related self-conscious emotions and depressive symptoms. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(6), 833-843. Web.
Chatziioannidis, S., Andreou, C., Agorastos, A., Kaprinis, S., Malliaris, Y., Garyfallos, G., & Bozikas, V. P. (2019). The role of attachment anxiety in the relationship between childhood trauma and schizophrenia-spectrum psychosis. Psychiatry Research, 276, 223-231. Web.
Cloitre, M., Khan, C., Mackintosh, M. A., Garvert, D. W., Henn-Haase, C. M., Falvey, E. C., & Saito, J. (2019). Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between ACES and physical and mental health. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(1), 82-89. Web.
Erikson, K. (1991). Notes on trauma and community. American Imago, 48(4), 455-472.
Garland, C. (2018). Understanding trauma: A psychoanalytical approach. Routledge.
Haase, C. M., Holley, S. R., Bloch, L., Verstaen, A., & Levenson, R. W. (2016). Interpersonal emotional behaviors and physical health: A 20-year longitudinal study of long-term married couples. Emotion, 16(7), 965-977. Web.
Hemmila, M. R., & Jakubus, J. L. (2017). Trauma quality improvement. Critical Care Clinics, 33(1), 193-212. Web.
Hirschberger, G. (2018). Collective trauma and the social construction of meaning. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1441. Web.
Huh, H. J., Kim, K. H., Lee, H. K., & Chae, J. H. (2017). The relationship between childhood trauma and the severity of adulthood depression and anxiety symptoms in a clinical sample: The mediating role of cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 213, 44-50. Web.
Janjetic, M. A., Rossi, M. L., Acquavía, C., Denevi, J., Marcolini, C., & Torresani, M. E. (2019). Association between anxiety level, eating behavior, and nutritional status in adult women. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 39(3), 200-205. Web.
Jones, E., & Wessely, S. (2006). Psychological trauma: A historical perspective. Psychiatry, 5(7), 217-220. Web.
Kożusznik, M. W., Peiró, J. M., Soriano, A., & Navarro Escudero, M. (2017). “Out of sight, out of mind?”: The role of physical stressors, cognitive appraisal, and positive emotions in employees’ health. Environment and Behavior, 50(1), 86-115. Web.
Kunzmann, U., Schilling, O., Wrosch, C., Siebert, J. S., Katzorreck, M., Wahl, H. W., & Gerstorf, D. (2019). Negative emotions and chronic physical illness: A lifespan developmental perspective. Health Psychology, 38(11), 949-959. Web.
Levenson, R. W. (2019). Stress and illness: A role for specific emotions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81(8), 720-730. Web.
Li, S. H., & Graham, B. M. (2017). Why are women so vulnerable to anxiety, trauma-related and stress-related disorders? The potential role of sex hormones. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(1), 73-82. Web.
Lopatkova, I. V., Serykh, A. B., Miroshkin, D. V., Shcherbakova, O. I., Kochetkov, I. G., Deberdeeva, N. A., & Diatlova, E. V. (2018). The interrelation of post-trauma stress disorders with reactive and personal anxiety. Electronic Journal of General Medicine, 15(6), em85. Web.
Magruder, K. M., McLaughlin, K. A., & Elmore Borbon, D. L. (2017). Trauma is a public health issue. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1375338. Web.
Mann, F. D., Krueger, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2020). Personal economic anxiety in response to COVID-19. Personality and Individual Differences, 167, 110233. Web.
Marvaldi, M., Mallet, J., Dubertret, C., Moro, M. R., & Guessoum, S. B. (2021). Anxiety, depression, trauma-related, and sleep disorders among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 126, 252-264. Web.
Masiero, M., Mazzocco, K., Harnois, C., Cropley, M., & Pravettoni, G. (2020). From individual to social trauma: Sources of everyday trauma in Italy, the US and UK during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 21(5), 513-519. Web.
Patiño-Lakatos, G. (2019). Trace and memory of trauma: From bodily memory to symbolic memory. L’Évolution Psychiatrique, 84(3), e45-e58. Web.
Qeshta, H., Hawajri, A. M. A., & Thabet, A. M. (2019). The relationship between war trauma, PTSD, anxiety and depression among adolescents in the Gaza Strip. Health Science Journal, 13(1), 621. Web.
Rahnama, M., Shahdadi, H., Bagheri, S., Moghadam, M. P., & Absalan, A. (2017). The relationship between anxiety and coping strategies in family caregivers of patients with trauma. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR, 11(4), IC06-IC09. Web.
Rank, O. (1929). The trauma of birth. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
Silver, R. C. (2020). Surviving the trauma of COVID-19. Science, 369(6499), 11. Web.
Smith, A. M., Willroth, E. C., Gatchpazian, A., Shallcross, A. J., Feinberg, M., & Ford, B. Q. (2021). Coping with health threats: The costs and benefits of managing emotions. Psychological Science, 32(7), 1011-1023. Web.
Terrasi, S., & De Galarce, P. C. (2017). Trauma and learning in America’s classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(6), 35-41. Web.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). Trauma and memory. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 279-302). The Guilford Press.
van der Merwe, A., & Hunt, X. (2019). Secondary trauma among trauma researchers: Lessons from the field. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(1), 10-18. Web.
Williams, M. T., Printz, D., & DeLapp, R. C. (2018). Assessing racial trauma with the Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 735-747. Web.