Introduction
Sporting activities have always played a crucial role in human life. Through these events, people are able to fulfill their fitness, social, and entertainment needs. People who engage in sports often aim to achieve the highest level of performance. It is generally acknowledged that athletes need to be in top physical condition to perform optimally. For this reason, many professional and amateur athletes engage in intensive exercise regimes aimed at increasing their speed and endurance. They also carry out rigorous practice exercises to hone their skills. However, physical fitness and experience are not the only attributes necessary for the best performance to be achieved. Psychological factors also have a significant impact on the performance level of the athlete. Attention and anxiety are two of the psychological states that influence the performance of individuals. The two work together and influence each other leading to poor or good outcomes. This paper will set out to investigate the effects of attention and anxiety on a person’s motor skills. It will focus on the relationship between attention and anxiety in order to show how the two work together to influence the performance of athletes.
Definition of Terms
Attention
Attention has always been regarded as an important component of human performance. Studies in sport psychology demonstrate that attention significantly influences performance. Fullagar, Knight and Heather (2013) define attention as alertness and the concern with development of the maintenance of optimal sensitivity and preparedness for responding. It is a limited resource that often entails biased selecting of information from particular spatial locations. While engaged in sporting activities, the attention of an individual shifts along two dimensions. The first dimension is width while the second is directional. In most conditions, a person is able to “shift his/her focus of attention along both of these dimensions in response to the changing demands of performance situations” (Howland, 2006, p.54). The ability to engage in selective attention leads to impressive performance by athletes. Studies reveal, that the selective attention demonstrated by expert athletes differentiates them from novices (Fullagar, et al., 2013). Experts are able to perform selective attention tasks where they block out input that it unnecessary for the execution of the task at hand. Focused attention is necessary in goal-direct tasks for high levels of performance to be achieved. Fullagar, et al. (2013) explain that when attention shifts occur from the focused activity, the athlete’s performance drops. It is possible for athletes to develop and optimize focused attention to improve performance. Elite athletes can be trained to develop attention control and improve their overall performance in sporting activities.
Anxiety
Anxiety is the condition that affects all humans leading to a heightened sense of awareness and increased motivation. By definition, anxiety is the feeling of apprehension and emotional pressure in anticipation of a situation. In the sports context, the concepts of anxiety and arousal are intertwined and it is often difficult to separate one from the other. Howland (2006) explains that in sport psychology research, “arousal is used synonymously with anxiety, activation, emotion, and psyched-up” (p.55). As such, the terms anxiety and arousal are used interchangeably when talking about the activities of athletes. Anxiety can be measured by behavioral, cognitive and physiological measures. Through behavioral measures, the level of anxiety experienced by the athlete can be determined. The behavior exhibited by the athlete can be linked to the underlying activation constructs observed (Nideffer & Sagal, 2001). In cognitive measures, the level of anxiety is determined by observing its impact on attention. When the level of cognitive anxiety gets too high, the self-regulation process is avoided leading to a deterioration of the self focused attention of the athlete. Physiological measures can be used to monitor the physical changes occurring as anxiety increases or decreases. The autonomic nervous system activates and controls the neural activity and peripheral organs in the body (Rouwen, Pijpers & Oudejans, 2010). Bodily changes such as pupil dilation, respiratory elevation, pupil dilation, and increased heart rate occur when the athlete faces high levels of arousal.
Attention and Anxiety
There is a recognized relationship between attention and anxiety and the performance of athletes in sporting events. According to Fullagar, et al. (2013), excess anxiety is characterized by disintegrated or distracted attention due to breakdowns in the ability of the athlete to shift attention fluidly. There are a number of theories and principles explaining the relationship between attention and anxiety during sport performances.
Inverted U Principle
The inverted U theory explains the effects that emotional arousal has on individual performance. This principle was developed by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908 and it is based on the premise that a certain level of arousal is necessary for the athlete to exhibit optimal performance (McMorris, 2004). Arousal is the human condition that stretches from a state of sleep to high expectation and it is manifested physiologically, cognitively and behaviorally. The athlete’s performance in sports is influenced by his/her level of arousal. A key assertion by the inverted U principle is that peak performance is achieved when the athlete is at his optimal level of arousal. The principle states that an athlete’s performance will increase gradually as the level of emotional arousal increases to the optimal level. This optimal level of emotional arousal is often midway between under-arousal and over-arousal. Howland (2006) confirms that moderate levels of arousal are ideal for the optimal athletic performance. If emotional arousal exceeds the optimal level, then the athlete’s performance will start to decrease. The performance of an athlete continues to deteriorate up to very poor when he/she reaches a point of over arousal.
The level of a task’s complexity affects the manner in which the inverted-U principle is applied to the particular scenario. Yerkes and Dodson’s inverted-U model reveals that the complexity of the task affects the placement of the curve along the x-axis (McMorris, 2004). When a task is easy, the curve is skewed towards the higher end of the arousal continuum. This means that an athlete requires a high level of arousal to perform optimally in easy tasks. On the other hand, the curve is skewed towards the lower end of the arousal continuum when the task is complex. In other words, complex tasks require lower levels of arousal for optimal performance. In such activities, the skill level of the athlete is more important in determining the outcome.
Perceptual Narrowing
Perceptual narrowing is the relationship between an athlete’s attention and his physiological arousal. Sport psychology studies indicate that the processing of relevant and irrelevant cues varies depending on the athlete’s level of arousal (Taylor & Wilson, 2005). When the athlete is at a low arousal level, he processes both relevant and irrelevant information from his environment. At this low arousal state, the athlete has access to a large number of cues. This is detrimental to optimal performance since only a few of the cues are needed to accomplish the task at hand. By having access to a large number of cues, the performer ends up detecting some irrelevant cues and missing some of the relevant ones (Schmidt, 2008). The task-irrelevant cues divert the attention of the individual from the execution of the task. This leads to suboptimal performance from the athlete due to a lack of focus. McMorris (2004) contends that in this state, the athlete suffers from perceptual distractions that may prevent him from picking up relevant environmental stimuli. Effective focusing occurs when the arousal is increased and at the optimal arousal level, the individual can focus on the relevant information while easily ignoring the irrelevant cues. However, as the arousal increases to higher levels, the athlete’s focus narrows. This narrowing reaches a point where even relevant cues are missed. Howland (2006) confirms that perceptual narrowing can hinder the athlete’s ability to identify task-relevant cues, thus increasing reaction time.
Some theories have been presented to explain how perceptual narrowing occurs. The sports psychologist Hebb Murray suggested that perceptual narrowing can be attributed to the operating of the central nervous system (Taylor & Wilson, 2005). The CNS perceives the cause of arousal as a threat to the athlete. While the athlete experiences high levels of arousal, the central nervous system begins to shut down less important systems with the goal of protecting the core functions of the human body. This leads to a narrowing of focus onto the immediate causes of arousal. This is the brain’s way of ensuring that the athlete pays attention and avoids the danger. This automatic mechanism leads to a tunnel vision which results in a decline in performance. Cooke, et al. (2011) asserts that high anxiety can overload attention capacity thus causing performance to reduce.
Hyper Vigilance (panic)
Arousal has an effect on the attention levels of the athlete. Hyper vigilance is the condition that occurs at the highest levels of arousal. This condition is also referred to as “panic” and it infringes on the decision making abilities of the individual. Hyper vigilance can be caused by a number of psychological conditions experienced by the athlete. Pervasive negative thoughts during the sporting event can lead to over arousal. Carlstedt (2004) reveals that negative thoughts can interfere with performance. This assertion is corroborated by Cooke et al. (2011) who demonstrate that the absence of negative intrusive thoughts corresponds to peak performances. Heightened levels of anxiety, either due to pressure or fear, can also lead to this panic.
Hyper vigilance is often characterized by the sudden and dramatic fall in performance by the individual. In the state of hyper vigilance, the athlete experiences an extremely narrow attention field leading to degraded physical control of movements or even freezing. During hyper vigilance, the athlete will lack effective control of his motor skills. Schmidt (2008) documents that the athlete will perform actions that would normally be performed in a flowing manner under relaxed circumstances in stiff and halting motions due to the heightened arousal. Performance panic attacks can result in the breakdown of motor skills during competition. Hyper vigilance might also lead to the athlete resorting to automatic responses. Ashley (2011) explains that instead of choosing the most appropriate course of action, the athlete will opt for the most practiced response during the hyper vigilance state. This action will be repeated pervasively even if it is not producing the desirable effects. Another possible reaction to hyper vigilance by the athlete might be a complete physical freeze. This occurs when the individual’s decision-making ability is severely limited by the extreme perceptual narrowing caused by the heightened levels of arousal.
While a certain level of arousal is necessary for optimal performance, the excess anxiety exhibited during panic states interferes severely with the athlete’s performance. An athlete experiencing hyper vigilance must look for ways to reduce his anxiety in order to bring performance back to its previous level. Schmidt (2008) reveals that small reduction in arousal will not cause the athlete to regain good performance. The only way to undo the damage caused by the hyper vigilance is for the individual to allow his anxiety levels to fall to the pre-catastrophe levels.
Zone of optimal functioning
This principle is based on the understanding that a certain level of arousal is necessary for good performance by athletes. It was proposed in 1980 by the sports psychologist Hanin Yurin after he had observed the performance of elite female rowers (McMorris, 2004). The theory proposes that individuals have different anxiety thresholds based on their personalities. Athletes can deal with different degrees of arousal without negatively affecting their attention and subsequently their performance. Hanin noted, that the arousal experienced during the sporting activity was linked to the optimal pre-competition anxiety level of the individual athlete (McMorris, 2004). Each athlete has a unique zone of optimal functioning, which is four points below their pre-state anxiety. As long as the anxiety level of the athlete is within the limits of the zone during the sporting event, he/she will exhibit optimal performance. However, if the anxiety is too far from the optimal level, that athlete will demonstrate reduced performance.
Implication for Athletes
Attention and anxiety both impact on the performance of an athlete. The discussions made in this paper suggest that greater control of attention and arousal can have a positive impact on an athlete. Howland (2006) declares that the athlete should be able to focus his attention and control his anxiety in order to improve performance. Nideffer and Sagal (2001) state that “if individuals are able to have control over their own level of arousal, so that it is neither too high not too low, they are capable of effective attention” (p.314). Cognitive techniques such as relaxation, self-talk, restructuring, and visualization can be used to control arousal and thus improve attention.
Self-talk involves the athlete talking to himself, either aloud or silently, about his performance. This technique serves a cognitive and motivational function for the athlete. Through positive self-talk, the individual is able to build confidence in his ability to perform well in the sporting activities. Carlstedt (2004) notes that positive self-talk during competition often precipitate feelings of being in control. This induces positive cognitions leading to enhanced performance by the athlete. This strategy also leads to optimism which promotes a reduction in anxiety and the decrease in incidents of hyper vigilance.
Anxiety levels can also be managed through cognitive restructuring. In this strategy, the athlete learns how to cope with anxiety in sports performance by promoting rational expectations (Schmidt, 2008). This is based on the premise that assumptions athletes make about sports performance determine what constitutes a threat. Wrong assumptions might lead to irrational expectations, which will then create high levels of anxiety. For instance, when an athlete assumes that his performance in the field should be perfect, he will have irrational expectations of himself. These expectations will lead to anxiety since it is unlikely that he will perform perfectly on the field. Through cognitive restructuring, the athlete is able to make realistic goals leading to realistic expectations (Schmidt, 2008). Researchers advocate for the adoption of mastery goals, which entail performing as well as one can. By adopting such goals, the athlete will have the lowest levels of performance anxiety.
Another strategy is the use of meditation and breathing exercises to bring about relaxation. Rouwen, et al. (2010) assert that relaxation is one of the most important techniques for performance enhancing. This technique enables the athlete to reduce anxiety and stress levels therefore achieve the desired level of attention. Considering that a certain level of arousal is necessary for optimal performance, completely eliminating anxiety might not be the best solution. Equipping the athlete to be in control of his anxiety levels is the better solution. Relaxation serves as an arousal control mechanism which can allow athletes to eliminate the tension that might results in sub-optimal performance.
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss attention and anxiety with the aim of showing how the two affect sport performance. It began by acknowledging the importance of sporting activities to mankind and the role of psychological factors in promoting optimal performance. The paper then defined attention as the alertness exhibited by athletes and anxiety as a heightened state of apprehension. It noted, that anxiety has an impact on attention and therefore affects the performance of individual athletes. A number of the studies that explain how the two conditions influence performance were then discussed. They include the Inverted U principle by Yerkes and Dodson, perceptual narrowing principle, hyper vigilance, and the zone of optimal functioning theory. The general consensus from these studies is that while low arousal leads to decreased performance, excessive arousal also leads to diminished performance. The best performance can only be realized when the arousal is at an optimal level. The paper observed that focusing attention and coping with anxiety is integral to ensuring optimal performance by the individual. It provided a number of strategies that can be used to alleviate the attention and anxiety problems faced by athletes. By implementing these strategies, athletes can gain greater control of their anxiety and focus their attention leading to the best performance during sporting activities.
References
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