Salmon, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 163-188. Web.
The article is a literary review of the role of play in children’s development. The paper synthesizes numerous works in the field and concludes that play fosters development in healthy children, enhancing their social, cognitive, motor and communication skills. Children suffering from chronic diseases usually have health disparities that prevent them from engaging in play actively, which, on the one hand, undermines their developmental capacities and, on the other, necessitates a more active involvement in playing activities. The article states that children with chronic deceases may not reach important developmental milestones due to their inability to play actively.
Salmon and Bryant (2018) highlight the major developmental problems that children with health disparities may face, including mental health and social problems, learning disabilities and neurocognitive issues. The authors attribute the higher risks of these problems’ development to the fact that suppressed play changes the process of children’s maturation. To help children with chronic illnesses successfully integrate into society and develop their emotional and cognitive spheres, one should engage them in play. The game is necessary for a person’s adequate development since, in play, children learn diverse coping strategies that allow them to fight their diseases.
Presenting a synthesis of many research works on the role of play in children’s lives, the article provides evidence on fostering the development of social, cognitive and communicative skills in health and health-impaired kids. The article asserts that the potential of children with chronic deceases to partially compensate for their disabilities through coping methods acquired in the processes of play is relatively high, provided they are actively engaged in the game. This stance is, by all means, valid since it is widely known that children’s developmental stages are impacted by the activities children are involved in, which is especially true for disabled kids. The article largely builds on Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development in its suggestions to involve children with health disparities in educational playing activities. The article may prove helpful for further research in the field and for specialists working with chronically ill children.
Mitchell, P., Sheppard, E., & Cassidy, S. (2021). Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 1-18. Web.
The article is a literary review that discusses the impact of autism on children’s and adolescents’ development. It has been found that autism negatively influences the ability of children to express themselves and communicate actively, which, in turn, may lead to depression and suicidal thoughts. While a medical theory of autism views diseases as ‘a defective module’, a social–developmental theory states that development is largely the result of social interaction a person has. From this perspective, a child’s or an adolescent’s inability to engage in meaningful interaction with others necessarily leads to retardation in their development.
Mitchell, Sheppard & Cassidy (2021) assert that neurotypical people are, as a rule, unable to sympathize with autistic ones, which leads to further alienation of the latter. The lack of positive social experience may, in its turn, lead to depression and suicidal thoughts. Mitchell, Sheppard & Cassidy suggest using retrodictive inference methodology may help children and adolescents with autism improve their social skills by making inferences about how people feel by considering the situation and people’s reaction to it.
While the proposed methodology has, as of yet, been little studied to make any meaningful conclusions, the authors’ assertion about the negative impact of autism on the development of children’s and adolescents’ communicative abilities is by all means right. The authors employ theories of continuous development, stating that autism in children and adolescents will lead to communicative problems in adult life. The research provides ample evidence as to how the emotional sphere of autistic children suffers due to the lack of communication. The impairment of the social and emotional sphere cannot but negatively affect the children’s self-perception and developmental cycle.
Walker, S. P., Wachs, T. D., Gardner, J. M., Lozoff, B., Wasserman, G. A., Pollitt, E.,… & International Child Development Steering Group. (2018). Child development: risk factors for adverse outcomes in developing countries. The Lancet, 369(9556), 145-157. Web.
The article is a literary review that discusses risk factors for the adequate development of children under five years of age in poor countries. A thorough synthesis of scientific literature allowed authors to single out factors that have a major impact on child development at an early age. These factors include malnutrition, infectious diseases, environmental exposures, parenting and contextual risk factors. Regarding malnutrition, the most hazardous situations occur when children experience an iron or iodine deficit. Iron deficiency leads to “early iron deficiency anaemia [which] alters brain metabolism and neurotransmission, myelination, and gene and protein profiles” (Walker et al., 2018, p. 147). These factors, in turn, result in children’s poor mental and motor capacities. Iodine deficiency adversely affects central nervous system development and results in irreversible mental retardation.
Infectious diseases can affect children under five years of age directly or indirectly. Infections such as meningitis or otitis can cause neurological impairment, while others, less severe ones, may lead to decreased playing activity. Environmental factors include exposure to high levels of lead, arsenic, or manganese, which often cause a decrement in IQ levels. Psychological factors are divided into parenting factors and contextual risk factors. Parenting factors comprise learning stimulation and maternal sensitivity associated with greater cognitive development levels and a stronger feeling of attachment on the part of a child. Contextual risk factors, such as exposure to violence and maternal depression, are found to affect socio-emotional competence negatively.
Describing factors that can negatively or positively affect children below five years of age, the authors rely on Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, which suggests steps for children’s intellectual development. Indeed, the description of such adverse effects as poor motor skills aligns with Piaget’s concept of the sensorimotor stage that presupposes the development of motor skills in response to stimuli. On the other hand, the article exploits the theory of life-span development naming adverse effects that can persist into adulthood such as mental retardation, neurological impairment and some others.
Rapee, R. M., Oar, E. L., Johnco, C. J., Forbes, M. K., Fardouly, J., Magson, N. R., & Richardson, C. E. (2019). Adolescent development and risk for the onset of social-emotional disorders: A review and conceptual model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 123, 103501. Web.
The article discusses the adolescent developmental period and typical problems that may arise at this stage. Rapee et al. (2019) state that adolescents run a higher risk of mental disorders due to the peculiarities of this age group. The onset of mental disorders may be caused by changes in relationships with peers, pubertal changes, such as changes in the level of hormones and morphological development, heightened emotionality typical for this period, and variations in sleep patterns. A major role in causing mental disorders is attributed to negative relations with peers, the lack of peer acceptance and support and the adverse influence of peer groups.
To prevent the onset of mental disorders or other mental states such as eating disorders, specific phobias, separation anxiety, depression, generalized anxiety disorder and substance use, Rapee et al. (2019) suggest a set of measures. These measures presuppose assisting adolescents in building a positive self-concept and good relations with peers, developing emotional regulation skills and acceptance of morphological changes that occur during this period.
In the article mental disorders are viewed in relation to a particular life stage, namely adolescence. The authors consider typical difficulties teenagers may experience and examine in what way they are responsible for the onset of mental disorders. The authors suggest that adolescents face a developmental conflict in their relations with peers, and negative experiences in this sphere may lead to mental problems. This view is consistent with Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory, which ascribes specific difficulties and conflicts to each stage of development.
Summary
The four articles discussed in the research cover current trends that may impact the development of children and adolescents. All pieces are literary reviews and synthesize a large number of works in their respective fields, providing reliable sources of information. However, the articles differ in their consideration of developmental stages and the theories they apply. Thus, the articles entitled “Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors” and the second entitled “Adolescent development and risk for the onset of social-emotional disorders: A review and conceptual model” view development in terms of stages. The articles consider the adverse factors that may impact children’s and adolescents’ development from the perspective of a particular age and developmental stage. Thus, the article “Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors” considers motor impairment and inability to be involved in active games among the major implications that chronic diseases have on children. This approach reflects Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory where sensorimotor and preoperational stages presuppose the active development of motor skills. Similarly, the article “Adolescent development and risk for the onset of social-emotional disorders: A review and conceptual model” considers the risks of mental order development taking into account only the factors significant for this age group, applying Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory in the research.
The articles “Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health” and “Child development: risk factors for adverse outcomes in developing countries”, vice versa, consider development from a life-span perspective, viewing the developmental process as unending and indivisible. The articles discuss how the adverse effects children and adolescents experience at specific developmental stages may impact their further life and persist into adulthood.
References
Mitchell, P., Sheppard, E., & Cassidy, S. (2021). Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 1-18. Web.
Rapee, R. M., Oar, E. L., Johnco, C. J., Forbes, M. K., Fardouly, J., Magson, N. R., & Richardson, C. E. (2019). Adolescent development and risk for the onset of social-emotional disorders: A review and conceptual model. Behaviour research and therapy, 123, 103501. Web.
Salmon, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 163-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.024
Walker, S. P., Wachs, T. D., Gardner, J. M., Lozoff, B., Wasserman, G. A., Pollitt, E.,… & International Child Development Steering Group. (2007). Child development: risk factors for adverse outcomes in developing countries. The Lancet, 369(9556), 145-157. Web.