Introduction
The history of the colonization of America has many impressive milestones. One of the most mysterious periods is Columbus’s arrival to the shores of a new continent and the subsequent settlement of North America by colonialists. During these historical events, the civilizations of Europeans and Native Americans clashed. This paper aims to present the relations of Europeans and Native Americans and the inequalities inherent in these relations.
The colonization of the Americas by Europeans took place gradually, and this process started with Columbus’s arrival to the shores of the present Dominican Republic. According to Davidson, at the time of Europeans’ first acquaintance with the American shores, the continent was densely populated by Native Americans, 8 million of whom were scattered throughout the continent. Native Americans lived in small towns and villages, built huge dugout canoes destined for military campaigns, hunted bisons using smoke, and did gardening.
As Columbus wrote about in his journal, the mainland population was peaceful and friendly towards the newly arrived Spaniards. Therefore, the term “Golden age” appeared to describe the Native Americans’ lives before the arrival of Europeans. However, the thirst for gold, inherent in European civilization, forever destroyed the visible idyll in which the indigenous peoples lived, and marked the beginning of the so-called “age of gold.” Following Columbus, who was not lucky in the subsequent exploration of the continent, the conquistadors Cortes, Balboa, and Pizarro arrived in America, whose invasion led to the fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations.
The reason why Hernan Cortes managed to capture Tenochtitlan was not his military skill, but tragic circumstances that led to the death of the population of the whole continent. Davidson notes that “European diseases such as measles, typhoid fever, influenza, diphtheria, and mumps, together with the wars of the conquistadors, seem to have killed from 50 to 90 million people in Central and South America.” Such significant numbers are because South America was much more densely populated than North America. Only in the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan lived up to two million people. There is also historical evidence that the Native Americans of the north suffered the same fate. The epidemic probably happened after the Spaniards left the mainland without finding gold there.
De Vaca and Indians’ Healings
The rudeness and aggressiveness characterized the invasion since Europeans saw the mainland as a source of prey. Many arrivals organized gangs that hunted slaves and robbed local tribes. However, there is an interesting story from this period about Cabeza de Vaca, a member of the Capitan Panfilo de Narvaez expedition to Florida, undertaken in 1527 to plunder Indian settlements. After an unsuccessful campaign, the team found themselves in difficulty and decided to get to Mexico’s Spanish colonies on rafts. However, the rafts were blown into the Gulf of Mexico and were washed ashore in Texas. Only four people survived: Cabeza de Vaca, two Spaniards named Castillo and Dorantes, and a friendly African nicknamed Estevanico. The Spaniards first fell into slavery to the Indians and did simple daily work for them. But then they managed to escape, and the group roamed the prairie for ten years, hunting. Sometimes, they met Native Americans from local tribes, and Cabeza de Vaca healed them.
One day Cabeza de Vaca had the vision to unite the Spaniards and Indians and live in peace; however, the idea was not destined to come true. Upon arrival in Spain, Cabeza de Vaca wrote a book about his adventures. The book was first published in 1542 and was titled “The Account and Commentaries of Governor Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, of what occurred on the two journeys that he made to the Indies.” The adventurer described the customs and lifestyle of Indian groups that he encountered while traveling.
The beginning of the book tells how the Spanish expedition invaded the villages of the Indians. Cabeza de Vaca describes one of the many encounters: “As the Indians went by, our men attacked them and captured three or four of them, which we took on as guides from that point forward. They took us through the country that was very difficult to cross and marvelous to see, filled with large forests and amazingly tall trees.” He also describes entering an Indian village “Once in it, we found only women and children… they began to shoot arrows at us. They killed the Inspector’s horse and finally fled.”
Later chapters deal with how de Vaca “healed” the Indians. He writes, “Some Indians came to Castillo telling him that their heads hurt a great deal… After he made the sign of the cross on them… they immediately said all their pain was gone.” That same night, according to the adventurer, the Indians began to bring in other people, who were then cured. Cabeza de Vaca then asked the Indians about the land and anything edible growing on it, and the Indians told him about the land. Both episodes described show that the Indians naturally reacted to the Spaniards – they helped the lost travelers and fired back at the conquerors. The Indians were ready for battle, but they did not attack the Spaniards.
Jamestown
Subsequently, after Jamestown was founded, Native Americans began to raid the colony, hoping that the British would stop taking their lands. Besides, the Indians tried to establish trade relations with the British. Henry Spelman, who later became the Virginian colony governor, left documentary evidence of negotiations with Indians. Spelman writes, “he (Powhatan) sent me back to our English bidding me tell them, that if they brought their ship, and some copper, he would fraught it back with corn.” Spelman also wrote, “Captain Ratcliff came with a ship with xxiii or xxv men to Orohpikes, and leaving his ship there came by barge with sixteen men to ye Powhatan to Powmunkey.” Spelman also notes that Powmunkey “very courteously” received the men and sent them bread and venison in reward for Captain Ratcliffe’s copper and beads. This report is an eye-witness account of the further massacre of Captain Ratcliffe and his company by Powhatan.
It should be noted this was a period of the first English settlements on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. These were the colonies of pilgrims in Plymouth and Boston who wanted to build their new world by becoming a “city on a hill,” a symbol of righteousness for other people. Besides, the British founded colonies in Virginia and Jamestown to grow tobacco. The plantation work was hard but paid off five times more than conventional farming. Therefore, the practice of hiring workers on a contract for several years has become widespread.
Living conditions in the colonies were harsh, and many emigrants died during their first year. The average life expectancy for people who worked on plantations was 35-40 years, compared to 60 years in the UK, and 70 years in New England. Therefore, life in the colonies attracted only those people who had nothing to lose. Many adults died, leaving homeless children, which led to the emergence of shelters. Education was not widespread at first, but later the first universities appeared. Elites sent their young children to British schools, hired British governesses and local students. Since people did not receive education and living conditions were extremely difficult, no one protested against the inequality that reigned in the colonies. Some branches of Protestants, such as the Quakers, who founded their settlement, rejected the idea of inequality and refused to bow to more high-quality society members. However, these people were an exception to the rule that inequality was normal, fair, and natural.
It is not surprising that this complicated the relationship between the British and the Indians. Indeed, in Indian tribes, relations were built on different principles. The tribe honored the leader, who was called the Great Sun, and his relatives, the Little Suns. Otherwise, the tribe members were equal, if not to take into account the patriarchal order of Native Indians’ society. Apparently, for this reason, the chief of Powmunkey Powhatan could not agree with Captain Ratcliffe and had to organize a military campaign against the settlement. After the outbreak of war between Britain and France in the 18th century, the Indians began to provide full-fledged resistance, showing their war art in its entirety. But in the 17th century, clashes were not the norm and were associated with the fact that the British refused to leave territories that belonged to Native Americans.
Rahe Hamor wrote another document that describes the relationship of the Jamestown settlers with the Powmunkey tribe. The report describes the relationship between the Virginian colonists and Indians up to June 18, 1614. It also presents the abduction of Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, and her marriage to John Rolfe in the spring of 1614. Notably, at first, Pocahontas was placed on a ship and treated with dinner. She was then given a seating area in the “Gunners room.” Interestingly, Raphe Hamor was disappointed that Pocahontas burst into tears before boarding the ship, so the crew had to persuade her for a long time.
It is also interesting that the purpose of the abduction of Pocahontas was the British prisoners’ return. Hamor wrote that Argall, who was the ship captain, was convinced by his friend Iapazeus that “that in ransom of her he might redeem some of our English men and arms.” Unsurprisingly, the princess, whose fame Hamor said reached England, became a bargaining piece in political games, given that both British and Native Americans had a patriarchal society. However, this episode only confirms that even if there was a relatively stable parity between Native Americans and the British, the opinions and desires of women were not taken into account by both sides.
Hamor describes persuasion for the princess to be patient and her disapproval of the situation. He writes: “So to James town she was brought, a messenger to her father forthwith dispatched to advertise him that his only daughter was in the hands and possession of the English.” The terms of the ransom were that the princess would be held hostage until Powhatan sent to the British their “men, swords, pieces, and other tools that were treacherously taken from us.”Powhatan remained silent for three months, and then returned seven men, with muskets unserviceable. The chief also said that if his daughter returned to him, he would give the pieces and add 500 bushels of corn to compensate for the damage and maintain friendly relations.
The British replied that they kept Pocahontas in the right conditions, treated her politely, and would return her safe and sound if Powhatan returned the weapons he had taken from them. Powhatan did not answer for a long time, so the British equipped the ship on which they put Pocahontas and went to the shores of Powmunkey to challenge them to battle, or demand the return of the swords, coins, and tools they had taken away. The British threatened to destroy the village, to which the Indians replied that they were ready to attack, and then fired arrows at the ship. The ship had to move some distance from the village at night, and then return to continue negotiations.
After the swords and coins were not returned to them, the British headed for the village. Hamor writes: “Higher up the river we went, and anchored near unto the chief’s residency Powhatan had, at a town called Matchcot where were assembled (which we saw) about 400 men, well-appointed with their bows and arrows to welcome us.” Negotiators came out to the British; among them were Pocahontas’ brothers. After they were convinced of her well-being, they agreed to convey a ransom offer and final peace between the Native Indians and the British.
Treaty with Six Nations
In light of the above, it is clear that the Native Americans were an advanced civilization driven out of their lands. After the declaration of independence, the US Congress signed a series of treaties with the tribes. According to these treaties, the tribes were assigned land, the borders of which were inviolable. However, in 1871, the House of Representatives ceased recognition of individual tribes within the US as independent nations. In the first article of the Treaty with Six Nations signed in 1784, the terms of peace are specified, according to which six signatories, the representatives of the tribes, remained “in possession of the United States” until the tribes return the hostages. In particular, “till all the prisoners, white and black, which were taken by the said Senecas, Mohawks, Onondagas and Cayugas shall be delivered up.” Next, the boundaries of the land and the waiver of claims to other western lands are described.
In return, the Indians “shall be secured in the peaceful possession of the lands they inhabit east and north of the same, reserving only six miles square round the fort of Oswego, to the United States.” Therefore, the document confirms that the relationship between Native Americans and the British was mixed. However, it was evident that the Europeans’ loyalty could only be achieved through war and the demonstration of force. The documents presented also illustrate the unfairness of the subsequent decision to deny the Native Americans’ recognition as independent nations.
Conclusion
Thus, the relationships between Europeans and Native Americans were presented. These relations were complex since Europeans behaved like conquerors towards Native Americans. The documents proposed demonstrate that the contact between Europeans and Native Americans was equal until the Europeans managed to populate the entire continent. Besides, thanks to the papers presented, it becomes evident that Native Americans behaved adequately to the Europeans’ actions and did not attack the settlers for a long time, in the hope of building a relationship based on communication and cooperation.
Reference
James West Davidson, A Little History of the United States, (Yale University Press, 2015), 9.
Davidson, A Little History of the United States, 15.