Introduction
In modern sociology, motherhood refers to the social structures, experiences, and expectations associated with childbearing and being a mother. At the same time, this term differentiates becoming a mother as a biological fact and mothering as practices involved in childcare from cultural and public norms linked to these processes. In other words, motherhood may be regarded as a social institution that contributes to hierarchy in work and family and gender differentiation. Being an intrinsic part of society, the institution of motherhood has always been affected by it. Thus, the ideologies of motherhood are inseparable from and affected by ideologies and cultural values dominated in society changing along with general social norms and standards.
Concept of Motherhood
In the present day, according to some experts, motherhood is associated purely with a patriarchal social structure and is based on the general perception of a woman as a caregiver for whom being a mother is natural. Adrienne Rich differentiated the meaning of motherhood, addressing it as “the potential relationship of any woman to her powers of reproduction and to children, and the institution—which aims at ensuring that that potential—and all women—shall remain under male control” (Jiao, 2019, p. 541). That is why there are several studies dedicated to motherhood divided into four categories or themes of inquiry – motherhood as experience, motherhood as an institution, motherhood as subjectivity or identity, and motherhood as an agency.
In the first category, scholars investigate the work made by women as mothers. In the second, they address the laws, policies, images, and ideologies of patriarchal motherhood. The category of motherhood as subjectivity or identity examines how women feel and see themselves being affected by the experience of mothering and the institution of motherhood (Jiao, 2019). Finally, a fourth category discusses how mothering is connected with political activism and women’s empowerment. It promotes mothering as a powerful, socially engaged enterprise that enables to cause cultural change locally and across the globe through social activism and feminist child-rearing. In general, sociologists are highly interested in various perceptions of motherhood by different cultures, how ideas about motherhood are affected by and reflected in mass media and change over time, and how the ideologies of motherhood vary by socioeconomic class, race, and religion.
Patriarchal Ideology
Throughout human history, motherhood was predominantly regarded as the woman’s inherited profession, basic mission, and her nature’s inseparable part. Thus, women were supposedly “drawn into motherhood by their inner instincts which at the same time guarantee their children’s healthy growth and development” (Leskošek, 2011, p. 207). Motherhood was equal to femininity as the most natural profession for women in the family where heterosexual relations could not be concealed or avoided. According to the Catholic institution of marriage, women were regarded as the heart and had to be protected by men from dangers outside the home, unable to survive on their own.
However, this protection had negative effects – women were controlled by their husbands, and they were regarded as physically, emotionally, and intellectually inferior. In addition, a woman was regarded as means of reproduction – thus, her reproduction system was controlled by her husband. Based on the patriarchal mental pattern, these relations were correct as they “symbolized the continuation of the lineage and the mankind as a whole” as all individual characteristics were believed to be passed down from the father to the son (Leskošek, 2011, p. 208). As a result, any sexual intercourse with other men was strictly prohibited.
In the patriarchal society based on the Catholic religion, motherhood was opposite to women’s sexuality. Pregnancy indicated women’s primitive nature, and as women were regarded as unable to control their instincts, men were responsible for the cultivation of women’s appropriate behavior. It was believed that women with strong sexual drives could not be good mothers. At the same time, a seeming failure to control sexual desire was completely a woman’s guilt. That is why single motherhood, as a sign that a woman could not control her sexuality being unmarried, was strongly marginalized and severely punished.
Modern Ideology
In general, it is possible to say that the modern ideology of motherhood has changed significantly, however, it still includes multiple elements of the patriarchal pattern. At the same time, as a modern society, especially of developed countries, may be characterized by a relatively high level of freedom for people and the availability of social rights, motherhood began to be perceived more openly. In other words, there are no strict limitations for mothers in relation to their duties as women’s roles in society have changed, and a lot of role models have appeared. In general, it is possible to identify several common tendencies in the modern ideology of motherhood.
First of all, since the 1980s, due to the feminist movement, women have stopped associating themselves only with the family and children (Erşen, 2016). At the present day, they receive high education, want to make a career, and work and sometimes earn more than men. They either fight against patriarchal values, especially in private life, or embrace them to be involved and act successfully in the business world. However, these behaviors are determined by the necessity to be competitive and survive, and in modern society, the roles and behavioral patterns of men have changed as well. In other words, a woman is no longer protected by the institution of marriage that initially prescribed men the total responsibility for their families’ financial well-being.
As a result, three main tendencies have appeared – women do not want to become mothers, women perceived motherhood in a different way combining the career with childcare, and women embracing and promoting motherhood using mass media. In the first case, motherhood is not regarded as a woman’s natural profession based on instincts anymore. Therefore, women have received a right to choose, and some of them prefer not to have children at all for multiple different reasons. In the second case, women believe that it is possible to combine work and motherhood. Their assumptions are traditionally supported by the changes in gender roles when husbands and wives commonly share family duties. At the same time, there is a belief that still exists in society when “women are repeatedly reminded of that the only possible way to realize themselves and gain their subject status is to be mother” (Erşen, 2016, p. 376). As a result, motherhood, pregnancy, and the concept of “an ideal mother” are actively promoted through mass media. At the same time, intensive mothering ideologies and the pressure to be a perfect mother have a highly negative impact on women’s mental well-being (Henderson, Harmon and Newman, 2016).
Conclusion
Having several categories, motherhood refers to the social expectations, structures, and experiences connected with childcare and being a mother. It is regarded as a social institution, experience, subjectivity, and agency. In general, it is impossible to divide motherhood from ideologies that exist in society. As social norms, standards, and patterns change over the course of time, the perception of motherhood change along with them as well.
References
Erşen, U. B. (2016) ‘Changing face of motherhood ideology’, Sociology and Anthropology, 4(5), pp. 374-379. Web.
Henderson, A., Harmon, S. and Newman, H. (2016) ‘The price mothers pay, even when they are not buying it: mental health consequences of idealized motherhood,’ Sex Roles, 74, pp. 512-526. Web.
Jiao, M. (2019) ‘Mothering and motherhood: experience, ideology, and agency’, Comparative Literature Studies, 56(3), pp. 541-556. Web.
Leskošek, V. (2011) ‘Historical perspective on the ideologies of motherhood and its impact on social work’, Social Work & Society, 9(2), pp. 206-215.