World War I may be regarded as a pivot point in modern history due to its impact on the world. Although the war was common for Europe as commercial, colonial, religious, dynastic, and civil wars of every variety formed its history, none of them prepared Europeans for such an unsettling, demoralizing, and devastating conflict that occurred between 1914 and 1918 (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Some events immediately led to the outbreak of World War I, however, there had been several factors from the 19th and early 20th centuries that impacted it as well.
European imperialism is one of these factors that slowly but inevitably led to World War I. Starting with the medieval crusades and the colonization of the Americas in the 16th century, the expansion of Europe overseas continued in the 18th-19th century (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Even though European countries had lost their American colonies, the 1800s may be regarded as the Era of Imperialism’s last decade characterized by an unprecedented annexation of foreign territories. Thus, Britain spread its influence in India adding more than 66 million people and 4 million square miles of territory to its empire (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Subdued Algeria in 1830-1847, France added 26 million people and 3.5 million square miles of territory (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Other states that received subjects and new colonial territories included Germany, the United States, Belgium, Italy, and the Netherlands. Finally, when Britain together with other European countries won the Opium War (1839–1842) and gained economic privileges from China, their authority in the international field became unquestionable. However, countries’ increasing competition for dominance and resources led to a confrontation with World War I as its pivotal point.
Another factor related to the war was nationalism intensified in Europe in the 19th century. Strengthened by Darwin-inspired notions of struggle and competition, popular journalism, romanticism, and economic rivalries, nationalism contributed to revolutions, the emergence of new states, and the unification of existing ones (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Along with imperialism-related racism, missionary fervor, economic gains, and belief in the West’s superiority, the ideas of nationalism convinced people that confrontations and conquests brought prestige, respect, and national accomplishment. Thus, the nationalism of the 19th century was directly connected with authoritarianism and militarism. According to Heinrich von Treitschke, the German historian, war was right for noble nations as “the paths to national greatness” while perpetual peace was desirable only by weak people (Andrea & Overfield, 2012, p. 292). In addition, countries started to create alliances that presupposed united participation in any confrontation in the case of its occurrence. Therefore, the intention of every European country to prove its power supported by the belief in the righteousness of the war led to the first global conflict.
As a result, 32 countries were involved in World War I peculiar by great losses and poor efficiency. While attacks produced insignificant gains of territory, the combination of machine guns, trenches, land mines, barbed wire, and poison gas initially introduced in this conflict aimed to kill as many people as possible. Thus, of 65 million mobilized men, 10 million were killed while 20 million were wounded (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). At the same time, these losses did not lead to stable and long-lasting peace.
In contrast with a previous belief in the glory of war, both winners and losers faced considerable challenges, including high unemployment, inflation, economic struggles, and the loss of territories and power. Germany had to abandon their democratic republic which would be replaced with Hitler’s Nazi dictatorship. The Ottoman Empire was forced to accept the humiliating conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920 as a defeated party and lose its territories (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). In turn, Arab countries who fought for independence were betrayed by Britain and France which gained control over them. Other countries that were on the winning side were left dissatisfied with territorial gains that did not outweigh new responsibilities, expenditures, and casualties. All in all, World War I negatively impacted all its participants causing substantial economic and political changes in them and forming the foundation for the next global confrontation.
From a personal perspective, the Enlightenment may be regarded as the most significant period in the history of the modern world as it determined the development of humankind in the next centuries. In general, the Age of Enlightenment was characterized by a growing force of secularism in the intellectual life of Europe. At the same time, it indicated the decline of the church’s influence on the region’s political, economic, social, and cultural life (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). In the 1700s, intellectuals and artists ignored religion while rulers started to rely less on religion in making diplomatic and political decisions.
The Enlightenment was inspired by the Scientific Revolution when scientists demonstrated the abilities of human reason without addressing ancient texts and prioritizing religious authority. Intellectuals from different European countries met to discuss various political, economic, and social problems suggesting potential solutions. According to them, with freedom of thought, people had an opportunity to improve their life. As a philosophical movement, the Enlightenment advocated the ideals of progress, science, liberty, fraternity, and tolerance. Philosophers suggested the separation of the government and the church, and the prevalence of reason as the source of legitimacy and authority over religious dogmas, rules, regulations, and limitations.
The Age of Enlightenment provided the basis for the industrialization of the 19th century. In the 1700s, the capital for it was raised, financial institutions began their development, and the infrastructure necessary for further industrial progress was built (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Moreover, “important technological breakthroughs occurred, and new ways of thinking about economic growth and policy were developed” (Andrea & Overfield, 2012, p. 166). In turn, these achievements substantially contributed to the spread of imperialism in the 19th century which may be regarded as one of the factors of World War I. Thus, it is possible to conclude that the Age of Enlightenment triggered technological progress that determined the subsequent significant events in human history.
In the 1600s, European history was characterized by monarchism with the absolute power of monarchs supported by the church. In other words, they were supposed to rule “by divine right, meaning that God had chosen them to rule,
and, as a corollary, that opposition to such rulers was an affront to the Divinity” (Andrea & Overfield, 2012, p. 145). However, the Age of Enlightenment gave the rise to ideas that questioned the necessity of absolute power. According to philosophers of that period, the capabilities of any ruler should be limited, and rulers should be chosen by people and dismissed by them in the case of poor performance. The Enlightenment contributed to the economic, social, and intellectual transformations of societies that led to political changes (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). Thus, the 17th – 19th centuries were characterized by revolutions across the Americas and Western Europe as new secular values replaced old social hierarchies, the privilege of the church, and monarchies.
The French Revolution inspired by the Age of Enlightenment may be regarded as the most significant one due to its scope and impact. It introduced the ideas and principles of democracy that “every person, irrespective of social standing, should have a voice in government and that all people should be treated equally before the law” (Andrea & Overfield, 2012, p. 175). Thus, as the revolution inspired different nations across the globe, the Enlightenment led to global political changes that determined the course of modern history.
The Enlightenment contributed to significant changes in social classes as the ideals of equity inspired women to fight for their civil rights. The feminist movement appeared in France and subsequently affected other European countries, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand (Andrea & Overfield, 2012). In addition, the French Revolution initiated the first nationalist movements and wars against Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia as the French people’s patriotic crusade to save their ideals and spread them across the continent. French nationalism led to Napoleon’s victories, the extension of France’s dominance over Europe, and responsive nationalism from Germany, Russia, Poland, and Italy that fought for independence. Subsequently, European nationalism led to more devastating conflicts, including World War I and II.
Reference
Andrea, A. J., & Overfield, J. H. (2012). The human record: Sources of global history, volume II: Since 1500 (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.