Description of the Nature of Addiction Crisis
Addiction is characterized by the continued use of drugs or any other substance by the body to prevent the indications of physical and psychological withdrawals (Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007; Stanton & Shadish, 2007).
In other words, addictions can be termed as a condition associated with the consumption of a substance including cocaine, alcohol and nicotine along with engaging in an activity considered gratifying. However, the continued usage of such stuffs leads to compulsivity and intrusion with daily life tasks. The stages of addiction are dependence and tolerance (Price, Price & McKenry, 2010). The former refers to a situation where the hunt for a drug forms the foundation of a person’s lifetime.
The latter is characterized by the ingestion of large amounts of the substance to avoid withdrawal indications (Stanton & Shadish, 2007). Actually, drug addiction is always associated with adolescents and can go on for a lifetime if preventive measures are not put in place. The reason why drug addiction is a significant focus of attention is that drug addiction causes complex disruptions to the brain cells (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007). As such, the addicts are unable to control emotions, memory and behaviors.
Essentially, drug addicts are often associated with paranoia, violence and depression as well as decreased pleasure in life. Additionally, mental illnesses, engagement in risky behaviors along with hallucinations and confusions characterize drug addicts (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007). When such issues are not addressed, the lives of addicts often become miserable.
Actually, drug addiction takes place in the form of physical as well as psychological dependence (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007). For example, heroin, tobacco and benzodiazepines are some of the drugs that lead to physical dependence. On the other hand, cannabis, ecstasy, amphetamines and cocaine often lead to psychological dependence (Stanton & Shadish, 2007; Price et al., 2010).
Theoretical Applications and Literature Review
Theorists contend that persistent use of drugs has negative implications on the brain system (Teesson, Degenhardt & Hall, 2014; Stanton & Shadish, 2007). In essence, the chemicals from drugs often disrupt the reception and processing of information by the nerve cells.
Actually, through imitation of the brain’s chemical messengers and overstimulation of the reward circuit, the nerve cells produce abnormal messages that prevent the normal functioning of the brain cells (Stanton & Shadish, 2007; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007; Price et al., 2010). In principle, the use of drugs normally triggers the release of abnormal amounts of dopamine, which leads to increased drug addiction.
Theories of Addiction
Diverse notions including genetic, exposure and adaptation theories explain drug addiction. The theories are significant in exploring the cycle of drug addiction through the application of multidimensional aspects (Liddle, Rowe, Dakof, Ungaro & Henderson, 2004).
Genetic Theory
The genomic model of addiction offers a critical departure from conservational facets in relation to drug infatuation. In reality, conventional researches have established that the major contributors to addiction are genetic, social and psychological factors (Hogue, Liddle, Dauber, & Samoulis, 2004).
Specifically, the self-medication hypotheses along with epidemiological studies put forward that the genetic factors influence over fifty percent of risks associated with addiction (Liddle et al., 2004; Hogue et al., 2004). Studies indicate that offspring born and raised in families characterized by consumptions of higher amounts of drugs show greater likelihoods of being drug addicts (Liddle et al., 2004).
In this regard, the genetic inclination to drug addiction is evident. Besides, considering members of particular races, researches postulate that American Indians and Asians have a deficit in the creation of acetaldehyde, which is responsible for alcohol degradation. Principally, such predispositions make American Indians and Asians to portray higher levels of alcohol addicts. Essentially, genes are capable of encrypting addictive behaviors among individuals.
Exposure Theories
The main idea behind exposure model is the supposition that infatuations come about because of persistent intake of a certain element. Exposure theories are classified into the biological models and conditioning models (Liddle et al., 2004; Hogue et al., 2004; Weber, 2011). According to the biological models, when a narcotic is introduced into the body, metabolic regulations and alterations take place.
Indeed, such adjustments are associated with continued and augmented consumption of drugs as a measure of deterring withdrawal symptoms. Available evidence argues that consistent use of drugs that naturally occur as painkillers often stimulate dependence on peripheral chemical agents to boot out pain (Liddle et al., 2004; Hogue et al., 2004; Weber, 2011). In other words, regular consumption of painkillers decreases the capacity of the body to manufacture endorphin.
Moreover, studies assert that nicotine is addictive due to its attributes that stimulate the production of endorphin. For instance, cigarette smokers hinge on nicotine to evade the signs characterized by spiteful physical responses emanating from abrupt discontinuation of consumption of addictive prescription.
On the other hand, conditioning models postulate corroboration of drug administration is to blame for addiction (Stanton & Shadish, 2007; Liddle et al., 2004; Weber, 2011). In fact, increased consumptions of drugs normally gain control over the behavior of the person. The model postulates that continued use of drug substance is caused by increased dosage. In fact, increased dosage provides intrinsic and natural recompenses, which do away with pain or withdrawal (Weber, 2011).
Adaptation Theories
The adaptation theories are founded on psychosomatic, conservational as well as social issues (Liddle et al., 2004). Besides, the adaptation theories contend that individual belief systems significantly influences behaviors associated with the drugs. Investigations have revealed that external pressures and internal needs are significant factors that contribute to increased usage of drugs (Stanton & Shadish, 2007; Hogue et al., 2004; Liddle et al., 2004).
Drug Addiction and Stress Response
Studies assert that mechanisms of anxiety are critical contributors to drug addiction. In fact, studies hypothesize that recurrent usage of drugs stimulates the body to release adrenocorticotropic hormone, which directs the body’s response to physical, emotional, internal and external anxieties (Stanton & Shadish, 2007; Liddle et al., 2004).
Besides, scientists postulate that the use of drugs such as heroin and morphine often constrains the production of neurotransmitters that cause stress. Additionally, addiction theories contend that when individuals consume cocaine regularly, the brain systems that are concerned with pleasure are activated thereby relieving stress (Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007; Stanton & Shadish, 2007). Nonetheless, consumption of cocaine is also associated with amplified levels of stress systems in the body. As such, the addict develops augmented levels of hypersensitive stress systems.
Drug Addiction and Behavioral Patterns
Researches point out that drug addicts often show varied behavioral patterns including the development of careless attitude towards work, abrupt weakening of relationships, frequent hangover indications and hyperactivity (Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007; Stanton & Shadish, 2007). Additionally, the use of drug culture jargons as well as forgetfulness is also associated with drug addicts. Further, studies assert that drug addictive behaviors are prominent among individuals that have high impulsiveness (Hogue et al., 2004; Liddle et al., 2004)
Approaches to Prevention and Interventions
Research has proved that drug abuse adversely affects the human brain. Besides, addiction is considered as the most common effect of drug abuse (Hogue et al., 2004; Liddle et al., 2004; Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007). The consequences of drug addiction not only affect the addicts but also their families and friends. As a result, psychologists have devised several prevention and intervention programs to assist patients on how to deal effectively with the problems of drug addiction (Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007).
For a long time, drug prevention measures were classified into primary, secondary and tertiary measures. Currently, intervention programs and models are classified into universal, selective and indicated prevention measures. Universal prevention strategies target the entire populace both locally and internationally without any previous records of substance abuse (Liddle et al., 2004).
On the other hand, selective intervention targets a specific group of interest with increased risk of exposure. Indicated prevention strategies are directed towards an individual with specific addiction problem. In addition, good intervention programs provide opportunity for the addict to accept help.
The Systematic Intervention Model Approach
The interpersonal level intervention model involves the capacities building on the prevention and management of drugs addiction. In fact, the interventionist equips the clients with relevant information on the adverse effects of drug abuse. Generally, this approach entails the inclusion of entire family members, comprising of the addict into the intervention program to avoid unnecessary isolations (Brown, 2000; Hoffman & Froemke, 2007).
The initial step of the program is characterized by the examination of each of the participants’ perception of drug abuse. The examination can be carried out by the issuance of questionnaires that are privately filled by each participant. The interventionist would then use the information gathered from the clients to guide his teachings (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007).
The most outstanding feature about this model is that everybody will acquire knowledge on the effects of the drugs being abused. The addict will understand the dangers they are exposing themselves to while other family members will empathize and not judge the patient based on his actions (Brown, 2000). Furthermore, the information can deter some family members from engaging in drug abuse. However, it will require the skills of a professional to pass such information without being judgmental.
The Johnson’s Model of Intervention
Vernon Jones devised the model. The model is considered as one of the most effective methods of intervention and prevention of drug abuse (McVey & Quarles, 2012). According to model, addicted persons cannot voluntarily look for treatment. In some cases, the addicts remain in denial for a long time. Therefore, the model believes that addicts must be confronted to accept professional help (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007).
The Johnson’s model ensures that the addicted persons do not leave in denial but accepts the fact that they have a problem that needs to be addressed. Besides, the model suggests that family members should not inform the patient of any form of expected intervention to reduce anxiety on the client (Hoffman & Froemke, 2007). The ultimate measure of a successful program depends purely on whether the addicted family member accepts help or not.
The Albany-Rochester Interventional Sequence for Engagement (ARISE) Interventional Approach
The ARISE engages the addicted persons in a series of intervention incidents. The ARISE model believes that families have more influence in changing the addicts thus putting much of the intervention processes on the part of the family (McLellan, Arndt, Metzger, Woody & O’Brlen, 2003; McVey & Quarles, 2012). The model gives room for flexibility as patients are treated at their preferred locations, usually in their homes (McVey & Quarles, 2012).
Suggestion for Future Research
With increased occurrences of drug addiction among adolescents, information regarding the prevention of drug addiction is essential. As such, to advance the field as well as tackle the future concerns about drug addiction, investigating drug consumption, treatment and the psychological consequences would be of greater significance. In fact, conducting research amongst individuals receiving treatment for drug addiction would be a source of critical gen regarding the brutality of drug addiction among individuals.
Additionally, further research should be conducted regarding the utilization of diverse measures in the prevention of addiction including cognitive behavioral strategies. Besides, given that drug addiction requires long-term monitoring and support, a research examining the paradigms regarding aftercare including social support, doses along with degeneration prevention approaches is necessary.
Treatment and recovery are always the major aspects that are often emphasized regarding the treatment and prevention of drug addiction. In this regard, a research concerning the content and modality as well as the prevention interventions in drug addiction should be conducted in the future to improve outcomes relating to the alleviation of continued drug ingestion.
References
Brown, L. (2000). Addictions. London, UK: Millivres Books.
Hoffman, J., & Froemke, S. (2007). Addiction: why can’t they just stop? Emmaus, PA: Rodale.
Hogue, A., Liddle, H. A., Dauber, S., & Samoulis, J. (2004). Linking session focus to treatment outcome in evidence-based treatments for adolescent substance abuse. Psychotherapy Theory Research, Practice and Training, 41(2), 83-96.
Liddle, H. A., Rowe, C. L., Dakof, G. A., Ungaro, R. A. & Henderson, C. E. (2004). Early intervention for adolescent substance abuse: Pretreatment to post treatment outcomes of a randomized clinical trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and peer group treatment. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 36(1), 49-63.
McLellan, A. T., Arndt, I. O., Metzger, D. S., Woody, G. E. & O’Brlen, C. P. (2003). The Effects of Psychosocial Services in Substance Abuse Treatment. Journal of addictions Nursing, 5(2), 38-47.
McVey, S. & Quarles, M. (2012). Helping others overcome addictions: How God’s grace brings lasting freedom. Eugene, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers.
Price, C. A. Price, S. J., & McKenry, P. C. (2010). Families and change: Coping with stressful events and transitions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stanton, M. D. & Shadish, W. R. (2007). Outcome, attrition, and family-couples treatment for drug abuse: A meta-analysis and review of the controlled, comparative studies. Psychological Bulletine, 122(2), 170-192.
Teesson, M., Degenhardt, L., & Hall, W. (2014). Addictions. Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
Weber, J. G. (2011). Individuals and family stress crisis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.