Introduction
Gender is a social construction that characterizes humans according to categories, primarily boys and girls or men and women. Adolfsson and Madsen (2019, 56) describe gender as a fluid concept that changes depending on culture, ideologies, norms, and social grounds. Further, the organization stresses that the construction encompasses behaviors, norms, and roles associated with these characteristics. Since it is a social construct, it thus varies from one society to another and is additionally dynamic, just as societies are and can change over time (Young et al. 1994, 58). Broadly, gender inequality is viewed as the departure from parity in the representation of women and men in key dimensions of social life. Issues surrounding gender have been of crucial interest among social institutions and have constantly made headlines as each tries to find a solution to inequalities based on gender. This paper seeks to address whether gender equality is a universal concept that needs to be strived for uniformly across regions and cultures or whether gender equality should have different meanings. This paper delves into other scholarly perceptions of gender inequality and answers the question by taking a stand based on research.
Literature Review
The absolute equality principle under ascribed conditions is an irresistible, modern, and universal drive. The idea of men and women being equal is fast becoming a self-evident truth that most people become blind to the vast gap between this affirmation and reality (Casanova 2009, 363-393). However, as there is a quest to generally standardize the principle of equality based on gender, its effects, and practices defined by cultures, social, political, and institutional arrangements shall vary across societies, religions, and civilizations.
There have been efforts in the past to make legist gender equality. These efforts are most notable by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), as explained in Casanova (2009, 368). This organization considers women’s equality as an exercisable right to ensure absolute progress and advancement of women across the political, social, economic, and cultural spectrum. This right is part of the larger human rights and basic freedoms every other being enjoys, thus forming an essential base for equality with men. Various scholars have sought to explain the efforts made to make gender equality a universal concept (Dairiam 2014, 367). However, negative norms and stereotyping hinder equality for women universally and are prevalent in various developed nations.
Accordingly, some scholars have explored gender equality at a macroeconomic level, specifically politically and economically. Fuwa’s (2004, 751-767) examination was based on the factors of the ideology of gender, which determined how chores in individual family units are divided, availability of time, and relative income. The effects of three factors had a greater impact on wives, particularly in egalitarian nations, because they are less likely to be discriminated against (Fuwa 2004, 763). Wives in less gender-egalitarian nations were more likely to be burdened with traditional house chores, regardless of time availability and income.
Other scholars have addressed the concerns of culture and individual identity and how they affect gender equality through liberal and critical multiculturalism. According to Prins and Saharso (2013, 718), individual rights existed beyond the superficial, social, civil, and political realms. The authors assert that individuals have the right to guard and preserve their culture and that this individualistic culture should be universally respected. However, this theory was faced with various debates as feminists who felt that some cultures have harmful practices against women were against it. Critical multiculturalism addresses individual behavior and thoughts and argues that these traits should be interpreted based on the predominant position they hold in society along the lines of class, gender, race, and age.
Theoretical Underpinning
Looking across various theories on gender equality, what stands out is that societies define the principles of gender and gender equality. Under the functionalist theory (Baligar 2018, 617), in preindustrial societies, the roles of men and women were defined by biological differences. In perspective, women have spiritual and emotional superiority making them the best people to provide primary care for children. Further, functionalists believe that gender is a form of efficiency that creates order within society through the distinct roles of males and females. In contemporary society, the theory highlights that these roles have become indistinguishable as women strive to be more proactive in the workplace.
Conflict theory asserts that inequality has sprouted from capitalism. Friedrich Engel, who coined the conflict theory, claimed that traditional society did not have much difference between male and female roles because there was not much to exploit (Baligar 2018, 618). Presently, the aspect of exploitation exists due to property rights transmitted by patriarchy. In modern society, capitalism has led to making dominance. For the women who are left taking care of the home with no compensation, their work is undermined and looked down upon, while men present themselves as the superior breadwinners—Engel, in conclusion, viewed marriage as a protection for women and men. To the female, it was a protection of their sexuality and protection of their private property from the man.
Based on these findings, it is difficult to make gender equality a universal concept. The barriers of cultures and norms have met most efforts that have been made to do so. The most notable efforts to address gender equality were seen in 1975 when the United Nations Secretary-General declared it an International Women’s Year (Dairiam 2014, 367-393). The first world conference was held in the same year in Mexico City to eliminate gender discrimination and laws that expressed discrimination along the lines of gender. Since then, there have been several other efforts, but to date, many countries are still far from achieving full gender equality. Cultural norms have been the main reason for not achieving optimum gender equality.
Society comprises individual family units; this collective unit mainly forms an independent unit with its own rules and principles that form cultures and norms. These rules and principles are difficult to break or even change since they are deeply rooted in individuals from their earlier days. In addition, the norms and culture are a form of identity that most of these societies take pride in; they also are a unifying factor that promotes peace and togetherness in a given society. As mentioned in Baligar (2018, 617), the division of labor between men and women in the family unit was instrumental in children’s socialization. Efforts to try and change these are considered a loss of heritage and individualism. Under the functionalist approach to gender, Murdock expresses that gender divisions in labor in every culture exist not because of biological programming but on a reasoned basis to organize society.
Furthermore, it is challenging to push for gender equality universally because of the differences in societal beliefs. The position that these norms hold in these societies is important. Since every society and culture has a right to maintain its values, it should be allowed to pursue gender equality along the lines of its norms. Presently some nations still practice traditional gender roles, such as Japan (United Nations 2020). In other nations, women have no problem partaking in most house chores despite their income and availability of time. However, some gender practices are detrimental to women and thus still need to be addressed regardless of societal beliefs.
The pursuit of gender equality should not be a universal concept. Still, it should be allowed to carry different meanings and be approached differently and advocated for depending on the culture. A universal pursuit will impede the rights of society’s norms to be respected (Weldon 2006, 235–248). However, gender practices that are harmful and impede human rights should be addressed universally in the quest to protect human rights.
Discussion and Analysis
After intensive lobbying at all levels of society, it is important to analyze the effect the gender equality campaign has had on society. Raw data from World Bank and International Labor Organization (ILO) and studies from various sources can help in the examination of gender parity indices in workplaces and schools, politics, and economic participation worldwide (World Bank 2022). These indicators have fared in recent decades and can help to investigate how society has adapted to gender equality. From the World Bank development indicators data, the CPIA gender equality rating has been an average of 3.3, with the country with the highest rating having 4.5 and the lowest rating being 1.5 (World Bank 2022). From this data, it is evident that most countries fall pin the upper percentile of the data and fewer countries in the lower percentile. Europe and Central Asia have the highest rating, while the Middle East has the lowest of all world regions.
According to the International Labor Organization, it is still challenging for women to get employed compared to men. According to a Gallup (2017) survey, labor participation for women is 47 percent globally, while for men, it is 72 percent, which is a 25 points difference. In addition, the unemployment rate for women stands at 6.4 percent, while it is 6.1 percent for women (Gallup 2017). The high unemployment rate for women is more prevalent in the northern part of Africa and the Middle East, with unemployment rates exceeding 20 percent in some countries.
Despite the low rating in the employment rate of women, they have a higher enrollment rate in both tertiary and secondary school education. Women have an enrollment rate of 76 percent in secondary schools and 43 percent in tertiary institutions (Gallup 2017). Men have a 77 percent enrollment rate in secondary school education and 37 percent enrollment in tertiary-level education (Gallup 2017). This means more women graduate from tertiary institutions capable of joining the labor force than men. Women seem to be more dedicated in their effort to pursue academia compared to men since they surpass them in enrollment into college education. If we juxtapose these rates with the rate of employment, it proves an unfair advantage that men have over women in employment.
The Gallup survey was conducted in 142 countries on 149000 men and women. It indicated that 70 percent of women and 66 percent of men prefer women to be in paid jobs (Gallup 2017). In these countries, the research showed that 54 percent of the women are out of the labor force, especially in Arabic countries (Gallup 2017). This shows that regardless of more women wanting to be in the labor force, there is still inequality in opportunities for most women. If women have the same level of education and experience, they should have equal access to work opportunities as men, which is the mantra of gender equality efforts. Unfortunately, the more educated women are, the less they are likely to have the same opportunities as men. In addition, women between the ages of 15 and 29 have been victims of unfair treatment, which hinders their career progress.
Focus on women is pivotal in evaluating the progress of gender equality and inclusivity since women are the ones that have been less involved in most levels of society, especially the ones that actively affect change and development. Regarding politics, a good government is reflected by its equality of gender in its system and specifically more involvement of women. Women’s political involvement indicates progress in society’s culture since most opportunities come from public elections. According to the United Nations (2021), the number of women in executive government has risen to 21 percent, with an annual increase of 0.52 percent. The number of women in national parliaments has risen to 25 percent from 11 percent in 1995, and the number of women in local government has increased to 36 percent (United Nations 2021). This indicates progress in pursuing gender parity in all social, political, and economic systems.
Conclusion
Gender equality is based on the principle of equal access to chances for all without prior bias based on sex. It is greatly favored by an egalitarian environment, especially for its lean on ensuring equality in income and distribution of resources to all. With the recent rise of liberalism and awareness of human rights, the plan to achieve gender parity has thrived through this medium and is spreading worldwide. However, there are still some impeding factors in this pursuit, some of which can be dealt with and others beyond control. The major challenge is inspiring the concept of equality in societies that have long believed in allocating roles based on gender basis. These include the purists and radical conservatives, including men and women, who do not want to evolve and believe in the equal capabilities of all people.
Thus, it will take a while to change this, but a relentless crusade on this matter will eventually effect change, something the media has greatly enabled. Other challenges can be dealt with, especially in places of work. The recommendation that can be drawn from this analysis is that harassment and abuse of people in places of work based on gender must be abolished. Organizations must develop non-discrimination policies that are aligned with national laws. Every employee should adhere to such regulations to ensure that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity of working in conducive work environments. Additionally, organizations should enforce promotions purely on merit and involve all people in decision-making without gender bias. These measures will ensure that gender equality is a norm welcomed in all societies globally.
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