Relations between people in the societies of Ancient Greece should be evaluated under the ethics of that period. Therefore, the actions of the main character of Homer’s Odyssey are proposed to be examined in terms of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics criteria, within the framework of practical philosophy. This approach will allow us to be abstract from later ethical research and avoid the relativization of the criteria of good and evil.
The purpose of the essay is to prove that Odysseus had crucial positive human characteristics described by Aristotle, and also, in the framework of practical philosophy, to analyze the actions that enabled Odysseus to achieve the realization of virtues of character, thought and justice. Besides, in the body of the essay, we may draw attention to the negative traits of Odysseus and analyze these traits within the framework of practical philosophy as well. That is, we will investigate Odysseus’ actions that led him to acquire his negative features.
Virtue, Pleasure, and Happiness in the Aristotle’s Ethics
Before proceeding with the analysis of Odysseus’ merits, some attention should be paid to the concept of virtue in terms of Aristotle’s Ethics. Aristotle determines virtue as a state of an individual’s character rather than feeling or capacity. Thus, he implies that virtue, as opposed to the capacity or feeling, can be achieved only through the proper action based on the deliberated and prudent decision (Aristotle 18). Moreover, this action should meet the excellent end, which is to have a fine goal. The finest goal, according to Aristotle, is when the virtuous action is done for its own sake. Therefore, virtuous individuals are appreciated not only for their tendency to right actions but also for the state of character, displayed in their deeds.
The philosopher points out that an individual can achieve happiness through the rational activity of the soul that goes in accord with virtue over the complete life. Aristotle implies that an individual’s happiness can be obtained exclusively in the community, as communication is one of human’s natural desires (Aristotle 12). Also, the philosopher describes virtue as the mean of any given state. He emphasizes: “Among these three conditions, two are vices, one of excess, one of deficiency, and one, the mean, is a virtue” (Aristotle 27). Therefore, mildness is the mean of anger, bravery is the mean of cowardice, and continence or temperance is the mean of pleasure.
Besides, Aristotle distinguishes rational and non-rational parts constituting the very essence of the human being. According to the philosopher, we make decisions progressing alternately from rational and non-rational desires (Aristotle 33). Aristotle does not put the rational part above the non-rational one since he believes that the non-rational part can also be the source of a fine pleasure, depending on the goals which it seeks to reach. Hence, the philosopher draws attention to the fact that any sensible person should pay attention to their non-rational impulses, give them a realistic assessment, and never follow them blindly (Aristotle 37). Thus, Aristotle concludes that happiness can be attained only by bringing into harmony the rational and non-rational parts of the human soul and mind.
As for pleasures, the philosopher believes that their quality can only be evaluated in terms of activity that leads to these pleasures. Besides, Aristotle indicates that although pleasure can make us feel good, it cannot be the good itself (Aristotle 155). He differentiates the bodily pleasures and pleasures of soul and mind. From Aristotle’s point of view, pleasures of soul and mind – such as pleasures of studying, listening to music, or watching comedies are self-sufficient (Aristotle 157). They cannot be judged in terms of incontinence or intemperance, unlike bodily pleasures. Another characteristic of pleasure is that pain is opposite to it, and every individual seeks typically to avoid pain and attain pleasure.
Bravery and Odysseus’s Hardest Decision
Throughout the long journey, Odysseus experienced three types of trials – proofs of truthfulness, tests for temperance and continence, and proofs of courage. Odysseus is reasonably not the most temperate man on the earth. But things are much better with his virtue of bravery. Odysseus proved to be a fearless man after he battled Cyclops, descended into the kingdom of Hades, passed through the narrow channel where the monsters Scylla and Charybdis lived and defeated the suitors who besieged his house.
So, let us examine Odysseus’s virtue of bravery within Nicomachean’s Ethics. According to Aristotle, “bravery and temperance – are both virtues of non-rational parts” (Aristotle 45). Philosopher emphasizes that a courageous man is only afraid of death, and this death should be the most dangerous and worthy at the same time. Aristotle concludes that “now such deaths are those in war since they occur in the greatest and finest danger” (Aristotle 41). It is also curious that, according to the philosopher, a courageous man is not afraid to die at sea or from an illness, as he had previously reconciled with the fact that safety is unattainable for him.
Still, not all courage is true courage in Aristotle’s understanding. He asserts that “whoever stands firm against the right things and fears the right things, for the right end, in the right way, at the right time, and is correspondingly confident, is the brave person” (Aristotle 41). The philosopher also believes that a brave person’s actions and feelings accord with worthy things and follow what reason prescribes.
Thus, when the sailors faced the monster Charybdis, they manifested true bravery, as they have thrown their fears away and navigated directly to the strait. Odysseus’ sanity helped him to convince his people to pass a dangerous channel closer to the cave of Scylla, but he did not mention her existence (Homer 292). The six-headed monster has devoured six men; however, if Odysseus had told about the Scylla, his men would have surrendered to the fear and died (Homer 293). After descending to Hades’ underground kingdom and meeting with the souls and spirits, Odysseus has encountered more abstract fear of death, which he also overcame with great courage (Homer 266). Blinding the Cyclops, however, cannot be considered a manifestation of bravery, since this action has not been done for the right end and in the right way.
Still, Odysseus showed the finest bravery after returning home to Ithaca. For some reason, there he lost faith in his strength and power, but, with the help of the goddess Athena, he coped with despair (Homer 312). In Ithaca, Odysseus also showed the wonders of continence and temperance, especially compared to his previous decisions. Perhaps this is because the goddess Athena helped him to fight the suitors, and maybe – because of the complexity of the task (Homer 378). One way or another, Odysseus managed to remain unrecognized until the right time, battled enemies who instilled fear in him, and regained his throne.
Incontinence and Intemperance, Most Prominent Manifestations
According to Aristotle, there is a significant difference between incontinence and intemperance. The philosopher describes these two concepts in the framework of the contradiction between rational and non-rational desires. Incontinence appears when, due to circumstances, an individual chooses in favor of non-rational desire, reasonably recognizing that the fulfillment of desire will harm him (Aristotle 111). In contrast, intemperance occurs when a person makes a non-rational and unhealthy choice for no good reason. The intemperate individual does not regret his actions and is thus incurable. In contrast, the incontinent individual is “prone to blame himself” (Aristotle 111). Besides, the circumstances that force a person to incontinence may relate to the natural appetite satiety or avoidance of pain. Aristotle considers intemperance as a vice, and incontinence as a mistake or a misunderstanding.
During the journey, Odysseus has shown both these unseemly qualities. The most apparent manifestation of intemperance was the decision of Odysseus to stay with his men in the cave of Cyclops Polyphemus (Homer 236). There was no need to stay on the island since the sailors had already treated themselves with the cheese from Polyphemus’ purveyance and rested from the sea roll. Besides, Odysseus’ men were frightened, so they suggested a return to the ship. But Odysseus was curious to see the Cyclops and said that, since they are guests of Polyphemus, he must follow the customs of hospitality (Homer 237). As a result, the sailors barely ran away, losing six men devoured by the Cyclops. It should also be noted that Aristotle puts curiosity as an effort of rational activity. And Odysseus’ decision to stay on the Cyclop’s island could have been a manifestation of curiosity.
After having escaped with the crew tying themselves to the bellies of the sheep from Polyphemus’ herd, Odysseus made another unreasonable move. He cried: “Cyclops! If any mortal asks you how your eye was mutilated and made blind, say that Odysseus, the city-sacker, Laertes’ son, who lives in Ithaca, destroyed your sight” (Homer 244). In response, the saddened Polyphemus prayed to his father, the god Poseidon. Polyphemus exclaimed: “Grant Odysseus will never go back home or let him get there late and with no honor, in pain and lacking ships, and having caused the death of all his men” (Homer 245). When Odysseus was recounting his adventures at Alcinous’ feast, he said that leaving the island of Cyclops, he and his crew were grieving for their friends. But Odysseus blamed Polyphemus for the incident and not himself. Thus, he did not regret his deed, and all his actions regarding Polyphemus should be considered intemperate.
Another manifestation of intemperance is Odysseus’ decision to stay with his crew on the island of Circe for the whole year. It was an intemperate decision since there were no significant circumstances compelling sailors to do so (Homer 261). Nonetheless, this decision turned out to be pointful – having rested, Odysseus left the island of the sorceress and descended to the kingdom of Hades, where he got predictions about his future (Homer 268). However, if Odysseus had shown temperance and did not blind the Cyclops, and did not stay at the Circe’s island, the voyage could have brought better fortune for him and his men. Also, the residence of the Odysseus’ crew on the island of Circe illustrates well Aristotle’s statement that the happiness of a human being is unattainable without rational activity.
Finally, the most prominent case when Odysseus’ men showed intemperance should be considered. At the end of the journey, Odysseus’ ship, as Tiresias predicted in the underworld, reached the island, where the sacred sheep and bulls of the god Helius lived (Homer 294). Despite the warning of Tiresias not to touch the cattle, the sailors grabbed and slaughtered several sacred cows when Odysseus went away to pray to all the gods for returning home (Homer 295). Thus they angered Helius, who asked Zeus to arrange a storm, in which the whole crew consequently died. Only Odysseus saved his life – in this way, gods praised him for keeping the Tiresias covenant and being temperate.
Truthfulness, Mildness, and Shame in the Face of Hardships
Odysseus spent impressive eight years on the island of the beautiful goddess Calypso. He was thrown onto its shores after Zeus broke the Odysseus’ ship, setting up a storm. Calypso saved Odysseus and, fascinated by his courage, decided to leave him on the island. At first, Odysseus enjoyed the company of Calypso but quickly got fed up and began to mourn for his Ithaca and his loved ones. When Hermes reached Calypso’s island and ordered her to free Odysseus, Ithaca’s king received the news with disbelief (Homer 173). He decided that Calypso had prepared a trap for him, sending him on a journey through the endless sea in a makeshift boat. Odysseus demanded that the goddess swear that she was not preparing “greater pain” for him. Calypso swore with the waters of Styx, so he started building a boat to leave the island.
While staying on Calypso’s island, Odysseus manifested virtues of mildness and truthfulness. He suffered homesickness with gentleness and showed the tenderness towards the cruel goddess. Odysseus was humbly spending days ashore, with his eyes full of tears, but he did not express anger at Calypso (Homer 176). The only exception was his demand that the goddess should swear not to harm him. This anger, according to Aristotle, can be considered a manifestation of incontinence, as it was caused by the pain of an extended stay on the island and legitimate fear for life, based on bitter experience.
But then, he answered very gently to Calypso’s rather rude statement that she surpassed Penelope in beauty when she was trying to convince him to stay. Odysseus said: “Do not be enraged at me, great goddess. You are quite right. But even so, I want to go back home, and every day I hope that day will come” (Homer 178). Also, Odysseus showed the dignity of truthfulness, since he preferred his home and the fate of a mortal to an endless staying with the beautiful Calypso on a magical island, where magnificent gardens grew, and streams of clear water were flowing. According to Aristotle, the truthfulness manifests itself both in a fair self-assessment and in an integrated, wholesome personality, and Odysseus acquired both.
Another example of mildness is when Odysseus spoke to Nausicaa after she reminded him that he owes her life. He said: “Nausicaa, may Zeus, husband of Hera, mighty Lord of Thunder, allow me to go back and see my home. There I shall pray to you as to a god, forever, princess, since you saved my life” (Homer 225). Odysseus mentioned Hera, the wife of Zeus, the goddess who was considered as the guardian of the hearth and patroness of marital fidelity in Ancient Greece. In this way, he gave a hint to the princess that his wife, Penelope, was waiting for him at home and manifested the virtue of truthfulness.
The themes of shame and shamelessness are predominantly associated with the behavior of the suitors, who enjoy Odysseus’ hospitality in his absence. Athena, enraged by their doings, said, referring to Telemachus as Mentes: “This is monstrous! You need Odysseus to come back home and lay his hands on all those shameless suitors!” (Homer 109). However, in the finale of the poem, there was a more eloquent appeal to the shame theme. Eupeithes, stricken by grief after the death of his son, the suitor killed by Odysseus, gave a speech to the people of Ithaca. He convinced them that Odysseus should be ashamed of how many people he killed (Homer 494). However, according to Aristotle, Odysseus should not be blamed for the death of his crew, except in the case of staying in the Cyclops’ cave, as this death was not the outcome of Odysseus’ decisions and voluntary actions.
How Odysseus Acquired his Virtues
According to Aristotle, virtues of thought and character are acquired throughout life. The virtue of thought “arises and grows mostly from teaching; that is why it needs experience and time,” whereas virtue of character “results from habit [ethos]” (Aristotle 18). Habituation, according to the philosopher, implies the right action because the action contributes to the variety of states a person acquires (Aristotle 19). The decent activity should also correlate with adequate understanding, but it is hard to create an outline of proper actions. Therefore, individuals decide for themselves, whereas the action is opportune or not (Aristotle 20). Also, the excess and deficiency may ruin any decent state or activity; that is why individuals can preserve their virtues adhering to the mean (Aristotle 20). Individuals can assess whether they have reached a mean state by examining their feelings.
If the right actions bring pleasure to individuals, they could be considered temperate. But if they are grieving for practicing temperance, they are still intemperate (Aristotle 20). According to the philosopher, this is because pleasure motivates the human to continue to do something, while pain causes the desire to avoid it (Aristotle 21). The proper upbringing is essential for a person as it introduces the ability to find pleasure and pain in the right actions (Aristotle 21). To summarize it, Aristotle says that a person becomes just taking just actions, and becomes temperate through temperate deeds.
It is noteworthy that Odysseus’s character did not change over the years. His behavior on Calypso’s island differed from his demeanor on the isles of Circe or Polyphemus. However, Odysseus’ action against Polyphemus was an exception rather than an indicative example. The homesickness he experienced on the island of Calypso showed that virtues of character were introduced in Odysseus in his early childhood. He left Ithaca at a very young age, but he already had his main virtues at that moment. Thus, Homer’s Odyssey praises a man who withstood all hardships, rather than a hero who found himself in wanderings.
What Gods Thought of Odysseus
The gods of ancient Greece are just like humans; moreover, they sometimes show even greater intemperance than mortals. Even Athena, the goddess of wisdom, is not an exception: “Gray-eyed Athena, daughter of the Thunder, became enraged and brought about disaster” (Homer 133). Athena treated Odysseus with deep sympathy: “Telemachus, you will be brave and thoughtful if your own father’s forcefulness runs through you. How capable he was in word and deed!” (Homer 123). Athena also respected Odysseus as a ruler: “Odysseus ruled gently, like a father, but no one even thinks about him now” (Homer 172). Zeus agreed with his daughter: “Odysseus must go back home, he has endured enough. The magical Phaeacians will respect him like a god, and send him in a ship to his dear homeland” (Homer 172). Hermes liked Odysseus and helped him on the island of Circe, and while negotiating with Calypso.
Nonetheless, Neptune and Helios brought chaos and suffering to Odysseus’ life. Neptune expressed his attitude through magnificent actions, setting up storms, winds, and rains. The Sea-god impersonated Odysseus’ fate, which is inevitable like a harsh and boundless sea. It is humility in the face of destiny that allowed Odysseus to return home. Helios, on the opposite, had a particular reason for outrage when sailors killed his sacred bulls. Seeing Odysseus as a leader, he intended to punish him, along with all his men who died in a storm. But Zeus allowed Odysseus to survive the storm and get to the shore of Calypso’s island. Finally, Calypso, who is also a goddess, was in love with Odysseus and wished to leave him on her island forever, but she was forced to adhere to the will of Zeus and let the hero sail away.
Thus, Odysseus’ main virtues and vices were considered, and his voluntary actions and choices were described. To summarize it, the greatest virtue of Odysseus is bravery. It can also be concluded that Odysseus behaved more temperate than his men. Besides, qualities of mildness and truthfulness are inherent in him, because any temptations – neither the well-fed life with Circe nor the immortality offered by Calypso, neither marriage to princess Nausicaa, prevented him from returning home.
Works Cited
Homer. The Odyssey. Translated by Emili Wilson, W. W. Norton & Company, 2018.
Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by Terence Irwin, 2nd ed., Hackett Publishing Company, 2000.