Minimizing Effects on Populations More Vulnerable to Environmental Dangers and Pollutants
Today’s discussion is shifting towards sustainable transport due to environmental and human health concerns. Studies around eco-friendly transportation have since become a primary interest for most researchers (Duan et al., 2021; Jing et al., 2022; Pietrzak & Pietrzak, 2020). For instance, Jing et al. (2022) established a negative correlation between public transport development and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with energy consumption being the transmission path. [1]
A study by Duan et al. (2021) examining energy-saving measures in Chongqing’s road transport sector showed that shifting transportation modes and improving energy efficiency was the more effective way to reduce air pollution and CO2 emissions. Therefore, achieving carbon neutrality through green infrastructure upgrades has been the main focus for minimizing the environmental and human health impacts of CO2 emissions.
Public transport can help reduce emissions and support a healthy environment, but action in other sectors of the economy is also needed. Pietrzak and Pietrzak (2020) explored the impact of electromobility on air pollution in cities, highlighting the significant role of transport in causing air pollution. [2] The study findings indicate that air pollution is a major global health risk factor, causing 3.5 million premature deaths as of 2017 (Pietrzak & Pietrzak, 2020).
Going green has broadly been cited as the future of sustainability and low-carbon emissions. According to research, mitigation strategies such as altering transportation modes, electrifying mobility, and improving the energy efficiency of motor vehicles could cut energy consumption by 30.9%, emissions by 29.8%, and CO2 emissions by 30.6% (Duan et al., 2021). The increasing use of electric cars reflects the determination to minimize emissions and create an eco-friendly environment for people.
The increasing number of road vehicles today has also raised challenges related to noise pollution. Besides, the excessive use of cars and buses has added additional challenges for authorities (Pietrzak & Pietrzak, 2020). Noise pollution from heavy construction and cargo transport vehicles is a significant source. Most researchers agree that the transport sector constantly seeks solutions to reduce environmental impact by deploying zero-emission vehicles (Duan et al., 2021; Jing et al., 2022). [3] The effort will have a significant impact on urban public transport and influence harmful substance emissions on a worldwide scale.
Public Transport Improving Access to Employment Possibilities
Public transport is essential for access to the central business district because it can move a larger workforce than personal cars. Calvert et al. (2022) explored the impact of transport options on job-seekers’ accessibility to employment locations and, in conclusion, used data from a survey of 254 job-seekers. Their research revealed high dependence on public transport and perceived transportation barriers (Calvert et al., 2022).
The authors also established that job seekers attribute a high cost to distance, with respondents willing to accept longer commutes to work in suburban locations. These barriers hindered attendance at job interviews and jobs, a finding that is consistent with the conclusions of Bastiaanssen et al. (2021). [4] According to Calvert et al. (2022), respondents preferred finding work near home or in the city center, with peripheral locations particularly problematic. Therefore, improved public transport job accessibility improves employment possibilities for people living in urban and rural areas.
A better public transport system will allow people to access workplaces while living in preferred locations. Bastiaanssen et al. (2021) used the British national employment microdata set to assess areas and populations that would benefit from public transport. The study’s findings revealed that job seekers who rely on public transport may benefit from targeted public policies to improve their access to employment and social mobility (Bastiaanssen et al., 2021).
These studies are important for policymakers in addressing job seekers’ challenges and in moving the larger workforce that relies on public transport. Areas facing socioeconomic difficulties, residents without a private car, and residents with insufficient access to public transportation could benefit from programs addressing social disparities. For instance, Calvert et al. (2022) indicate that Bristol Transport Strategy 2019 highlighted that public transport access to workplaces is not often realistic. [5] These studies highlight the need for public transport delivery strategies to better target underserved neighborhoods and disadvantaged population groups without access to private vehicles. Public intervention is necessary to improve job accessibility and reduce costs associated with public transport.
Access to Healthcare and Education Through Public Transportation
Public transport serves the majority, making it a significant factor in access to healthcare and education. Brown et al. (2019) estimated the health impact of scenario-based improvements to public transport accessibility in Melbourne, Australia. The authors mainly focused on physical activity, obesity, injury, health, and cost-saving outcomes in healthcare. The findings show that improving transportation accessibility could promote equity and efficiency, and reduce the externalities of motor vehicle use when accessing healthcare services (Brown et al., 2019).
Another study investigated transportation barriers to healthcare access during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on low-income, frequent users with chronic conditions groups (Cochran et al., 2022). The research established that increasing the availability of public transport options for these groups can mitigate adverse healthcare outcomes and avoid additional healthcare system costs (Cochran et al., 2022). [6] Therefore, these studies suggest that investment in improving accessibility to destinations by public transport would likely reduce transport-related mortality and morbidity and the burden of diseases associated with physical inactivity and obesity.
Public transport enables students, especially high school and college learners, to move. Younger adults aged 18-64, people with disabilities, and those without a household vehicle were significantly more likely to encounter challenges accessing institutions of learning or healthcare facilities (Brown et al., 2019; Cochran et al., 2022). For instance, a survey of North Carolina residents aged 18 and older found that approximately 1 in 3 experienced transportation barriers to health care between June 2020 and June 2021 (Cochran et al., 2022). Generally, these studies demonstrate the importance of considering the more comprehensive health and educational impacts of transport systems and networks in transport planning and decision-making.
Effects of Transit Projects on Social Equity Measurements
The effects of transit projects on social equity are assessed based on cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, and convenience. A study found that factors such as car ownership, commuting distance, parking availability, and ticket prices significantly affect employees’ use of public transport in small cities and towns in Northern Europe (Rasca & Saeed, 2022). It shows that people value cost-effectiveness and convenience when using public transportation to get to work.
For example, the unavailability of parking space is likely to cause inconvenience, acting as a deterrent to using personal cars. On the contrary, factors such as low bus frequency and long walking distances negatively affect public transport usage (Rasca & Saeed, 2022). A study of 59 transportation practitioners from various sectors revealed that most address equity through collaboration, integrating non-transportation-related data, and considering vulnerable communities’ needs (Cantilina et al., 2021). [7] Integrating transportation equity approaches into transit projects by increasing incentives to use public transport, such as enhancing convenience by narrowing proximity to drop-off points to workplaces.
People choosing to use or avoid public transport generally depend on available time, parking space, car ownership, and distance. Rasca and Seed (2022) [8] found that public transport is more popular among respondents with no persons in care, consistent with research by Cantilina et al. (2021). The study also found that older employees tend to have strong car habits in their daily commutes (Rasca & Seed, 2022). Overall, these articles contribute to the growing body of research on transportation equity, advancing research and providing a foundation for future transit projects.
How Transportation Influences or Affects Social Equity
People are increasingly dependent on private car transport as car ownership rises. Berg and Ihlström (2019) explored the role of transport in rural areas, focusing on rural dwellers in Sweden. The study found that private car travel is crucial for daily activities and is seen as the norm. Poor public transport services limit independent mobility, particularly for children and adolescents (Berg & Ihlström, 2019).
The findings suggest that improvements in public transport services could improve accessibility and reduce car dependency (Berg & Ihlström, 2019). Poltimäe et al. (2022) investigated the significance and durability of innovative transportation options in rural areas, explicitly emphasizing permanent and temporary residents. [9] Their study findings indicate that key success factors for sustainable rural mobility include accessible information, cooperation, shared values, and trust.
The rural transport infrastructure is not developed to the standards of urban centers, which influences reliance on public transportation. A review by Kaiser and Barstow (2022) examined the progress of rural transport infrastructure in recent years, focusing on its relationship with sustainable development, economics, agriculture, policy, health, gender, education, and climate change. The paper concludes that enhancing and extending rural transportation infrastructure significantly benefits rural dwellers but calls for further integration and increased use of systems approaches.
Furthermore, public transport promotes social equity by charging relatively low fares to encourage use and minimize user costs. Poltimäe et al. (2022) found that public transport fares are calculated individually, meaning the cost per passenger decreases while carpooling. However, the cost of public transport is a major obstacle to its use, as higher prices diminish its appeal relative to private alternatives (Kaiser & Barstow, 2022; Poltimäe et al., 2022).
Additionally, public transport costs affect tourists’ propensity to substitute for their private cars. Some researchers argue that substituting conventional public transportation with Direct Rail Transit (DRT) alternatives decreases greenhouse gas emissions by reducing travel distance and minimizing the occurrence of buses operating without passengers (Poltimäe et al., 2022). Generally, implementing a comprehensive strategy to create transportation services that cater to all users can generate economic benefits, reduce dependence on personal vehicles, reduce environmental impact, and enhance access to transportation.
Footnotes
[1] The study suggests that the public transport development level and CO2 emissions are negatively correlated, showing an “Inverted U-shaped” curve relationship. Energy consumption is the transmission path for the carbon-emissions-reduction effect of public transport development.
[2] The authors’ research indicates that public transport can reduce air pollution and promote electromobility in cities, but its success depends on appropriate actions across other economic sectors.
[3] The operation scale of electric vehicles and new-energy vehicles in the public transport sector continues to expand. Electric cars emit 10 to 26 times lower CO2 emissions than fuel-powered vehicles
[4] The study reveals that public transport accessibility significantly influences job prospects for job seekers. The costs of public transport can be a significant barrier to job uptake, especially among lower-income groups and youth.
[5] The Bristol Transport Strategy in 2019 highlighted that public transport access to Avonmouth workplaces is often not realistic due to shift patterns, with the only realistic option being by car.
[6] Transportation barriers impact healthcare usage and access, leading to delayed care, missed appointments, and late arrivals, which can result in increased hospitalizations, emergency department visits, and poorer long-term health outcomes.
[7] Scholars distinguish between transportation costs and benefits, with costs encompassing monetary costs, health impacts, and time, and benefits focusing on employment, social inclusion, and education.
[8] The study reveals that the use of public transport (PT) is more prevalent for respondents without children in care, indicating a negative relationship between PT use and having children in care. This finding is particularly relevant in small cities and towns, where the relationship between PT use and children is less explored.
[9] The study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive examination of mobility solutions’ social, economic, and environmental implications, particularly in relation to fair access to transport and data privacy.
References
Bastiaanssen, J., Johnson, D., & Lucas, K. (2021). Does better job accessibility help people gain employment? The role of public transport in Great Britain. Urban Studies, 59(2), 1–22.
Berg, J., & Ihlström, J. (2019). The importance of public transport for mobility and everyday activities among rural residents. Social Sciences, 8(2), 1–13.
Brown, V., Barr, A., Scheurer, J., Magnus, A., Zapata-Diomedi, B., & Bentley, R. (2019). Better transport accessibility, better health: A health economic impact assessment study for Melbourne, Australia. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16(1), 1–10.
Calvert, T., Crawford, F., Parkhurst, G., & Parkin, J. (2022). Perceived accessibility of employment sites by jobseekers and the potential relevance of employer-subsidised demand responsive transport to enhance the commute. Cities, 130, 1–12.
Cantilina, K., Daly, S. R., Reed, M. P., & Hampshire, R. C. (2021). Approaches and barriers to addressing equity in transportation: Experiences of transportation practitioners. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2675(10), 972–985.
Cochran, A. L., McDonald, N. C., Prunkl, L., Vinella-Brusher, E., Wang, J., Oluyede, L., & Wolfe, M. (2022). Transportation barriers to care among frequent health care users during the COVID pandemic. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–10.
Duan, L., Hu, W., Deng, D., Fang, W., Xiong, M., Lu, P., Li, Z., & Zhai, C. (2021). Impacts of reducing air pollutants and CO2 emissions in urban road transport through 2035 in Chongqing, China. Environmental Science and Ecotechnology, 8, 1–12.
Jing, Q.-L., Liu, H.-Z., Yu, W.-Q., & He, X. (2022). The impact of public transportation on carbon emissions—from the perspective of energy consumption. Sustainability, 14(10), 1–18.
Kaiser, N., & Barstow, C. K. (2022). Rural transportation infrastructure in low- and middle-income countries: A review of impacts, implications, and interventions. Sustainability, 14(4), 1–48.
Pietrzak, K., & Pietrzak, O. (2020). Environmental effects of electromobility in a sustainable urban public transport. Sustainability, 12(3), 1–21.
Poltimäe, H., Rehema, M., Raun, J., & Poom, A. (2022). In search of sustainable and inclusive mobility solutions for rural areas. European Transport Research Review, 14(1), 1–17.
Rasca, S., & Saeed, N. (2022). Exploring the factors influencing the use of public transport by commuters living in networks of small cities and towns. Travel Behaviour and Society, 28, 249–263.