Introduction
The Chinese and Roman empires are two of the world’s most formidable empires. The Roman empire is credited with laying the groundwork for western civilizations and political systems. The Han dynasty is credited with establishing the foundations of Chinese governance and culture. This dynasty had a profound impact on eastern culture. The Roman and Chinese empires were enormous, with provinces dividing much of their territory. The Han and Roman empires were molded by the catastrophic civil wars that raged in China and Rome. The fall of the Qin kingdom in China sparked a tremendous conflict, with Liu Bang remaining triumphant after numerous attempts and turmoil. Structurally, these events can be compared with the wars and victories of emperor August when analyzing the role they played in the overall welfare of the respective empires. The periods of wars were followed by lasting peace that was eventually interrupted by internal conflicts, attacks from outside, and consecutive downfalls.
Khan Empire
The Han Dynasty’s “golden era” was a time of economic, cultural, and scientific development that resulted in the formation of a Chinese identity. The emperors of this imperial dynasty were all Liu family members. The Western Han and the Eastern Han were the two periods during which they ruled, perceived by the subjects often as spiritual figures and institutions. The Han emperors reigned over about 60 million people and controlled approximately 2.5 million square kilometers of land.
The Han, who believed that non-Han (Chinese) people were essentially inferior, had a hostile relationship with tribal populations residing along China’s borders. Even if it required battling the tribes, the Han emperors considered themselves as “enlightened” bringers of peace and order to the tribes. Tribal tribes who were causing problems would be relocated further into the empire. However, because many Chinese authorities detested these indigenous tribes, they had no qualms about mistreating and defrauding them. Unfortunately for the Han, their failure to assimilate these indigenous peoples meant they were always a threat to the empire. The Han destroyed the Xiongnu, a major tribal tribe, in 89 CE and drove them out of China, with these enemies later becoming the huns. The Han had overlooked the fact that the Xiongnu had been acting as a deterrent to other hazardous tribes. The Xiongnu’s removal opened the floodgates to invasion. The cost of defending against these tribal challenges was a significant drain on Han resources.
The difficulties did not all come from the outside, with the internal issues exhibiting ever-greater prevalence as the dynasty slowly fell into decline. By the year 100 CE, taxation had become a major issue. Local elites who held huge estates gave less of their wealth and energy to the empire, despite the fact that small farmers were the most dependable tax base. Many modest farmers willingly or reluctantly gave up their land to serve local elites on their estates as tenants or debt slaves. Smaller farmers were able to avoid paying taxes while the affluent were able to enhance their output. The empire, on the other hand, was running out of money to deal with new crises.
As the decline process developed, the emperor lost credibility in the public eye, with lower-class residents rebelling against the obvious corruption of the elite. Throughout the 170s and 180s, the Yellow Turban Revolt was a peasant uprising prompted by several outbreaks of a devastating epidemic (Bentley, Ziegler, and Street-Salter, 2017, p.224). People began to blame the emperor as they died, believing he had the ability to end their misery. However, he was unable to find a treatment for the disease and, to make matters worse, he imposed high levies on his people. Instead, peasants turned to faith healers in the hopes of finding mystical treatments.
Chinese historians have been attempting to figure out why the Han Dynasty fell apart for almost a thousand years. They came up with three primary theories throughout time: 1) terrible rulers; 2) empresses and court eunuchs’ power over child emperors too young to rule alone, and 3) the Yellow Turban Revolt. The first simply asserts that the Han Empire collapsed because too many emperors were inept at their professions. The second is based on the fact that most Eastern Han emperors died young, with no apparent successors in certain cases. The future emperor would be chosen by the dowager empresses (and their families).
The dowager empresses, with the aid of the eunuchs, had to reign for these new emperors, who were usually young. This goes against many Chinese beliefs that authority must come from a man. The third theory blames the collapse of peasant revolts against incompetent rulers. Many additional hypotheses have been proposed by modern researchers. According to one theory, the Han triumph over Xiongnu marked the start of the end. Some feel that the only way to keep the generals loyal to the empire is via a conflict. There were no more powerful foes to battle when the Han forced the Xiongnu tribe to evacuate the border. Like tigers at a vegetarian barbecue, the generals, like Dong Zhou, may have turned their hunger on the empire. Others claim that a schism developed between the emperor and the intellectuals in charge of the administration and that the empire’s peripheries grew too powerful for the monarch to rule. Another hypothesis proposes a division between the empire and the wealthy, land-owning nobility.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire spanned 2.3 million square miles (5.9 million square kilometers) over three continents, Africa, Asia, and Europe, at its apex in 117 CE. Approximately 60 million people reside inside its borders, according to estimates. It was one of the ancient world’s greatest and most powerful empires (Bentley, Ziegler, and Street-Salter, 2017, 415). However, the empire’s magnitude could not be sustained. Mesopotamia was lost to the Parthians of ancient Iran within a few decades following Emperor Trajan’s death in 117 CD. Mesopotamia would never be held by the Romans again.
Diocletian inherited an empire on the point of collapse when he became Roman Emperor in 284 CE. Several weak kings came before him, all of whom climbed too rapidly and were frequently slain. International trade networks were faltering, and the Roman Empire’s huge, interconnected world was on the verge of vanishing. When Diocletian gained power, he instituted a number of reforms in order to rescue his empire. Although most of these reforms would not survive long after his death, he did provide much-needed stability. The empire would stutter for another century and a half in the West but reign for nearly a millennium in the East.
Everything went poorly for the following 140 years, especially in the west. Child emperors, who were mentored by generals, held a lot of power. International trade had plummeted, and the economy was in disarray. The Vandals, led by Gaiseric, conquered North Africa, cutting off the Western Roman Empire’s primary grain supply. Markets grew more localized inside the empire, making tax collection more challenging. Germanic tribes began to push into the empire across Europe, frequently motivated by the desire for protection and security from armies such as Attila the Hun. These forces became too powerful to resist in the West, and Romulus Augustulus was ousted.
The Antonine Constitution was published by Emperor Caracalla in 212 CE. It granted citizenship to all free males living within the Roman Empire’s limits, regardless of how far they were from Rome. Through education and administration, the concept of Roman identity, or romantic, was promoted forcefully (Bentley, Ziegler, and Street-Salter, 2017, 429). Non-Romans resided on the other side of the frontiers, and they were scorned as barbarians. The Romans’ attitude of social superiority was most apparent in their treatment of the Germanic tribes. German parties attempted to enter the Roman Empire around 350 CE, but while the Romans would utilize them as warriors, they had little chance of being acknowledged as Roman.
A. Demandt produced a list of 210 explanations proposed by historians for the demise of the Roman Empire in 1984. Taxes, hypothermia, and public baths are all on the list, although there were very certainly several factors. Internally, the empire was in financial trouble. It had lost its tax base and had been shut off from long-distance commerce. The inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire were estranged from the emperor, living in small, isolated, self-sufficient communities that could no longer count on their ruler to look after and defend them. Outsiders, like the Germanic tribes, were pouring into the empire in ever-increasing numbers. Many probably merely wanted to be a part of Rome, not to attack or destabilize it.
It’s crucial to consider what the collapse of Rome meant to historians in addition to why it happened. Some perceive it as a disaster. When historians examine the ruins of Rome, they perceive the fall of Rome as the violent and terrible end of civilization, propelling Europe into a Dark Age that was primitive and savage in comparison to life under the Roman Empire. Others regard the fall of Rome as a transitional time. While the Western Roman Emperor’s central power faded in 476 CE, Roman institutions such as the Catholic Church and Roman law persisted throughout the Germanic kingdoms that followed.
Overall Conclusions
Internal conflicts and unhappiness played a role in the demise of both empires. There were several conflicts among the Han Dynasty’s leaders. Furthermore, many incidents of inequitable land allocation and tax burdens on peasants contributed to increased public unhappiness. In comparison to the declining central government, proprietors were becoming increasingly influential and capable of influencing politics. They established regressive tax policy and engaged in widespread land grabs. Unrest and uprisings such as the Yellow Turban were sparked by these causes. Due to its failure to preserve its territory, the Han Dynasty fell due to inept leadership and populist discontent.
Similarly, the Roman Empire had countless instances of infighting and increasing populist discontent. Ineffective management, owing to the empire’s immense size, was another factor that led to the rise of discord within the empire. The Roman Empire had significant financial challenges in protecting its frontiers. This resulted in astronomical tax loads for the general public. The empire was harmed by a mixture of tax troubles and illnesses like the plague. Ineffective leadership was also a problem, given the Emperors’ lavish lives and disrespect for the people.
The rising unhappiness of the lower classes and a decreasing focus on the empire’s social and political position resulted in a dire scenario. Various factors that had previously brought people together were no longer serving their intended function. Politically, economically, and culturally, the Roman Empire suffered a setback. The empire became exposed to foreign attacks, particularly from the Germans, as a result of this. People sought safety from rich landowners rather than the Empire’s rulers as the Roman Empire weakened. As a result, authority was decentralized, and control over numerous trade routes was lost. In both empires, a decrease in morality and ideals bred division. Both the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty saw a decline in public health care and political irresponsibility, particularly when it came to corruption.
Conclusion
Although the aspects of ancient civilization changed little in comparison to the Han Dynasty, the Roman Empire collapsed owing to a lack of a well-defined and well-integrated political, cultural, and economic structure. The Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty are analogous to present political, economic, and social conditions in the United States. The combination of an ineffectual political system, a faltering economy, and rising levels of unhappiness among Americans is likely to lead to an inconceivable catastrophe in the country, according to evidence.
Reference
Bentley, Jerry, Herbert Ziegler, and Heather Street-Salter. 2017. Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective On The Past. 6th ed. McGraw Hill Education.